https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/ 2026-09-07T09:09:38+00:00 https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/ https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/_media/wiki:logo.png text/html 2024-09-02T04:32:00+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:adeno-associated_virus?rev=1725251520&do=diff Adeno-associated virus (AAV): a small eukaryotic virus that is modified and used for research and therapeutic purposes as a gene delivery vector. rAAV stands for “recombinant AAV”. text/html 2024-08-27T04:56:31+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:allele?rev=1724734591&do=diff Allele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence. text/html 2024-09-02T00:18:13+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:alternative_splicing?rev=1725236293&do=diff Alternative splicing: intron splicing where the splicing patterns are different from a default pattern, e.g., different exons can be skipped to produce spliced mRNAs with different sequences to produce different proteins. text/html 2024-08-27T04:39:32+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:amino_acid?rev=1724733572&do=diff Amino acid: molecules that are polymerized to form proteins. text/html 2024-09-01T01:26:01+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:amorphic_mutation?rev=1725153961&do=diff Amorphic mutation: assuming a wildtype allele has 100% gene function, an amorphic mutation is a mutant allele that has 0% gene function. Also called a null mutation or a complete loss of function mutation. text/html 2024-09-02T00:37:33+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:ampicillin?rev=1725237453&do=diff Ampicillin: a common type of antibiotic used in genetics research. text/html 2024-09-01T04:21:27+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:anaphase?rev=1725164487&do=diff Anaphase: a phase of mitosis or meiosis during which chromosomes start to be pulled apart. text/html 2024-09-01T21:17:27+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:antibiotics?rev=1725225447&do=diff Antibiotics: naturally produced compounds, usually found in molds and fungi but are typically commercially available, that either kill bacteria or prevent their replication. In genetics research, they are often used to select for the presence of an episome that carries an antibiotic resistance text/html 2024-09-01T01:32:14+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:antimorphic_mutation?rev=1725154334&do=diff Antimorphic mutation: A mutation that, when combined with a wildtype allele (either as a merodiploid or as a diploid), the total amount of activity is less than wildtype. The implication is that the gene product produced by the antimorphic allele interferes with the function of the wildtype gene product. Also called a dominant negative allele. text/html 2024-08-31T01:05:27+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:antiparallel?rev=1725066327&do=diff Antiparallel: a term used to describe how the orientation of the two strands of dsDNA are opposite to each other. text/html 2024-08-28T21:43:21+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:autosome?rev=1724881401&do=diff Autosome: any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome. text/html 2024-08-27T04:49:38+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:auxotroph?rev=1724734178&do=diff Auxotroph: a mutant that cannot synthesize one more essential nutrient from minimal media needed for survival or proliferation. text/html 2024-09-01T22:09:28+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:bacteria?rev=1725228568&do=diff Bacteria: Single-celled organisms that also utilize DNA and the standard genetic code as all organisms on earth, but unlike eukaryotes do not have intracellular membranes and membrane-bound organelles. In this book we use bacteria and prokaryote interchangeably. text/html 2024-09-01T04:08:39+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:bacteriophage?rev=1725163719&do=diff Bacteriophage: viruses that infect bacteria. text/html 2024-08-31T01:20:00+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:base_pair?rev=1725067200&do=diff Base pair: a term used to describe how nitrogenous bases (G, A, T/U, and C) in nucleic acids interact with each other via hydrogen bonds to form double-stranded molecules (including dsDNA, dsRNA, and DNA/RNA hybrids). G always pairs with C, and T/U always pairs with A. text/html 2024-09-02T03:55:39+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:blastocyst?rev=1725249339&do=diff Blastocyst: an early stage embryo from which embryonic stem cells are derived. text/html 2024-09-02T02:10:04+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:c-terminus?rev=1725243004&do=diff C-terminus: the end of a polypeptide chain that contains the last amino acid that was translated. text/html 2024-09-01T00:08:09+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:caenorhabditis_elegans?rev=1725149289&do=diff Caenorhabditis elegans: a non-parasitic non-pathogenic nematode species used as a model organism in genetics researhc. text/html 2024-09-02T04:28:44+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:capsid?rev=1725251324&do=diff Capsid: the outer shell of some viruses made from various viral proteins. text/html 2024-09-01T21:51:27+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:cdna_library?rev=1725227487&do=diff cDNA library: a library that is created from an mRNA sample, usually from a specific tissue source and/or cell type. The mRNAs, representing all the different genes that are expressed in that tissue, are reverse transcribed into cDNAs, which are then cloned and archived for research. text/html 2024-09-01T04:19:54+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:centromere?rev=1725164394&do=diff Centromere: a locus on a chromosome that marks where spindle fibers attach during mitosis and meiosis. text/html 2024-08-30T02:35:35+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:chiasma?rev=1724985335&do=diff Chiasma (plural: chiasmata): structures shaped like the Greek letter χ (usually Romanized as chi but pronounced “kai”) that form between non-sister chromatids during meiosis I. Chiasmata is the physical manifestation of crossing over. “Crossover” can be used as a synonym for chiasma. text/html 2024-09-02T03:59:10+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:chimera?rev=1725249550&do=diff Chimera: In the context of multicellular animals, a chimera is an individual that contains cells derived from multiple parents. In a general sense, “chimera” means something with a mixed constitution. In Greek mythology, a chimera is a monster that has a lion's head, a goat's body, and a serpent's tail. See also text/html 2024-09-02T02:12:41+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:chimeric_protein?rev=1725243161&do=diff Chimeric protein: a protein that is the result of artificially joining together parts of two or more unrelated proteins. Also called a fusion protein. text/html 2024-08-30T02:33:54+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:chromatid?rev=1724985234&do=diff Chromatid: a chromosome-like structure, two of which are formed after replication of a chromosome in both mitosis and meiosis. text/html 2024-09-02T01:15:10+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:chromatin?rev=1725239710&do=diff Chromatin: the collective structure of all proteins and DNA in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell. Nucleosomes are stacked in different configurations to form chromatin structures of different density. Chromatin structure is regulated by a variety of chromatin modifying enzymes. text/html 2024-08-28T21:29:41+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:chromosome_theory?rev=1724880581&do=diff Chromosome theory: the theory that genes, the basic unit of inheritance, are located on chromosomes. First demonstrated by Thomas Hunt Morgan in 1911 using Drosophila and sex-linked mutants. text/html 2024-08-27T01:11:54+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:chromosome?rev=1724721114&do=diff Chromosome: a structure that organizes dsDNA in a cell through interactions with various DNA binding proteins. text/html 2024-09-01T23:24:34+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:cis_trans?rev=1725233074&do=diff Cis and trans: In genetics, cis and trans are terms used to describe the relative physical locations of genes or genetic elements. If two genes are in cis, this means that they are physically located on the same DNA molecule. If two genes are in trans, this means that they are physically located on two different text/html 2024-08-31T02:38:30+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:cis-acting_regulatory_element?rev=1725071910&do=diff Cis-acting regulatory element: a DNA sequence that is usually located near and controls the expression of a gene or genes. Includes elements such as enhancers (e.g., $UAS_{GAL}$), repressors (e.g., $URS_{GAL}$), operators (e.g., $lacO$), promoters (e.g., the $GAL4$ promoter that contains the TATA box; another example is $lacP$ in E. coli), etc. text/html 2024-08-31T23:56:07+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:clone?rev=1725148567&do=diff Clone: Depending on the context, this word can have a few different meanings: * In the context of genes, cloning means that the physical identity of a gene has been found, and the gene has been sequenced. * In the context of DNA, a cloned DNA fragment is one that has been inserted into some kind of text/html 2024-08-31T01:58:20+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:coding_sequence?rev=1725069500&do=diff Coding sequence: refers to the portion of DNA or mRNA in a gene that contains direct information on the gene product. In most cases, this means a portion of DNA or mRNA that correlates to codons. Note that not all parts of a gene will necessarily be coding sequence (e.g., intron sequences). text/html 2024-08-27T06:29:58+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:codominant?rev=1724740198&do=diff Codominant: refers to two alleles of the same gene that, when both present, will express the phenotypes of both alleles. An example is the $A$ and $B$ alleles for human bloodtype; some humans have $AB$ bloodtype because the $A$ and $B$ alleles are codominant, whereas the $O$ allele is recessive to both $A$ and $B$. text/html 2024-08-31T01:42:41+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:codon?rev=1725068561&do=diff Codon: a three nucleotide sequence that is read by the ribosome and specifies an amino acid that is added to a growing poplypeptide chain based on the genetic code. text/html 2024-08-27T05:12:22+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:complement?rev=1724735542&do=diff Complement: used to describe the relationship between two recessive mutants. If a diploid created by mating the two mutants has a wildtype phenotype, we say the two mutants complement each other. text/html 2024-08-31T23:01:17+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:complementary_dna?rev=1725145277&do=diff Complementary DNA (cDNA): DNA that has been reverse transcribed from spliced mRNA using reverse transcriptase. cDNA sequences are useful because they lack intron sequences and therefore contain information about the ORF of intron-containing eukaryotic genes. text/html 2024-09-01T18:06:40+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:complementation?rev=1725214000&do=diff Complementation: a concept where an additional allele of a gene (usually a wildtype allele) can provide normal function to an organism with a recessive loss of function mutation in that gene. The concept of complementation underlies the complementation test. text/html 2024-08-27T05:07:43+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:complemention_test?rev=1724735263&do=diff Complementation test: a genetic experiment that answers the question: how many different genes are represented within a collection of mutants? text/html 2024-09-01T04:41:38+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:conditional_mutant?rev=1725165698&do=diff Conditional mutant: a mutant that displays a mutant phenotype only under certain conditions. Some examples include: * a temperature sensitive mutant that is mutant only at increased temperatures. * a nonsense mutation that exhibits a mutant phenotype only when a nonsense suppressor is absent. * an auxotrophic mutant that can only grow if a specific nutrient is provided. text/html 2024-09-02T01:07:16+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:constitutive?rev=1725239236&do=diff Constitutive: a term describing a pattern of gene expression, wherein the gene is always expressed no matter what. For some genes, constitutive expression is normal (see housekeeping gene). For inducible genes or operons, constitutive is a mutant state. text/html 2024-09-02T04:13:31+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:cre_lox_system?rev=1725250411&do=diff Cre-$lox$ system: A site-specific DNA recombination system derived from bacteriophage P1. The enzyme Cre recombinase will drive DNA recombination between 34 bp-long $loxP$ sequences. Very commonly used in various reverse genetic experiments. text/html 2024-09-02T04:26:06+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:crispr?rev=1725251166&do=diff CRISPR: short for clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats. In bacteria, CRISPR is a form of innate immunity that bacterial cells use as a defense against bacteriophage. The CRISPR system consists of a protein typically called Cas9 and two non-coding RNAs called gRNA and tracrRNA. The text/html 2024-08-27T05:55:29+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:crossing_over?rev=1724738129&do=diff Crossing over: an event where non-sister chromatids exchange material with each other during meiosis I. text/html 2024-09-01T01:54:34+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:deoxyribonucleotide_triphosphate?rev=1725155674&do=diff Deoxyribonucleotide triphosphates (dNTPs): the collective name for four different molecules (dGTP, dATP, dTTP, dCTP) that are substrates for DNA polymerase and are used to form DNA. These are sometimes abbreivated as “deoxynucleotides” (which clearly refers to dNTPs) or just text/html 2024-08-31T23:38:11+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:dideoxyribonucleotide_triphosphate?rev=1725147491&do=diff Dideoxyribonucleotide triphosphate (ddNTP): A modified dNTP that functions as a chain terminator in Sanger sequencing. Includes ddGTP, ddATP, ddTTP, and ddCTP. text/html 2024-08-27T06:13:34+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:dihybrid_cross?rev=1724739214&do=diff Dihybrid cross: a cross, developed by Gregor Mendel, that illustrates Mendel's Second Law. See Chapter 03. text/html 2024-08-27T01:34:50+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:diploid?rev=1724722490&do=diff Diploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has two copies of similar genetic information, usually obtaining one copy from a male parent and the other copy from a female parent. text/html 2024-08-31T01:07:29+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:dna_helicase?rev=1725066449&do=diff DNA helicase: an enzyme usually involved in DNA replication. Its main function is to unwind the two ssDNA strands of dsDNA. text/html 2024-09-01T21:43:19+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:dna_ligase?rev=1725226999&do=diff DNA ligase: an commercially available enzyme used to form phosphodiester bonds between the 3' end of one strand of dsDNA and the 5'end of another. Used for molecular cloning experiments. Its natural function in cells relates to lagging strand DNA synthesis and various DNA repair mechanisms. text/html 2024-09-01T23:03:26+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:dna_polymerase?rev=1725231806&do=diff DNA polymerase: an enzyme that is usually involved in DNA replication. This enzyme uses deoxyribonucleotides (dNTPs) and a primed template as a substrate to synthesize a new strand of ssDNA that pairs with its template to form dsDNA. There are many different kinds of DNA polymerase, but in this book we collectively refer to them as text/html 2024-08-31T01:22:44+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:dna_replication?rev=1725067364&do=diff DNA replication: usually the process of starting with a dsDNA molecule and ending with two identical copies of that dsDNA molecule. In most cases, “replication” implies DNA replication. text/html 2024-08-27T02:31:23+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:dna?rev=1724725883&do=diff DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid. The genetic material for nearly all life on Earth. text/html 2024-09-02T02:06:06+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:domain?rev=1725242766&do=diff Domain: in biochemistry, a domain is a portion of a protein structure that can function independently or semi-independently from other portions of the protein. text/html 2024-08-27T03:47:10+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:dominant?rev=1724730430&do=diff Dominant: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Dominant alleles will express their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele. text/html 2024-08-31T01:02:27+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:double-stranded_dna?rev=1725066147&do=diff Double-stranded DNA (dsDNA): DNA that consists of two complementary strands of ssDNA paired together via hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous bases G, A, T, and C. text/html 2024-08-27T05:40:55+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:drosophila?rev=1724737255&do=diff Drosophila melanogaster: a fruit fly species used in genetics research. text/html 2024-08-31T23:45:53+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:electrophoresis?rev=1725147953&do=diff Electrophoresis: an experimental technique that is used to separate charged molecules (such as nucleic acids) by size by applying an electric field to cause the charged molecules to move through a sheet of a gel-like material. text/html 2024-09-02T03:53:11+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:electroporation?rev=1725249191&do=diff Eletroporation: an experimental technique that can be used on both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells to introduce foreign DNA into cells without using chemicals like LiCl or CaCl2. text/html 2024-09-02T03:38:57+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:embryonic_stem_cell?rev=1725248337&do=diff Embryonic stem cell: totipotent stem cells derived from preimplantion embryos that can be grown in vitro in a Petri dish. text/html 2024-09-02T01:59:37+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:enhancer?rev=1725242377&do=diff Enhancer: a more inclusive term for a UAS. One reason this is a more inclusive term is because not all enhancers are located upstream of genes; some enhancers are located downstream of a gene, and in some cases can even be located inside a gene. text/html 2024-08-27T04:43:56+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:enzyme?rev=1724733836&do=diff Enzyme: a macromolecule, usually a protein (but sometimes an RNA), that functions as a catalyst of some kind of biochemical reaction. text/html 2024-09-01T18:14:19+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:episome?rev=1725214459&do=diff Episome: a piece of DNA that exists separately from chromosomes and that can replicate and segregate during cell division. While all episomes are natural in origin, they are commonly exploited by researchers for genetics research. text/html 2024-09-01T23:57:57+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:epistasis?rev=1725235077&do=diff Epistasis: describes a relationship between two mutant alleles $a$ and $b$. If the phenotype of a double mutant $a \cdot b$ is the same as the single mutant $a$ we say that $a$ is epistatic to $b$, and that $a$ likely functions after $b$ in a pathway. text/html 2024-09-01T00:17:12+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:escherichia_coli?rev=1725149832&do=diff Escherichia coli: an enteric bacterium used both as a model organism and as a utility organism in genetics research. E. coli is commonly used to host various cloning vectors, such as plasmids, cosmids, F factors, and bacterial artificiak chromosomes (BACs). text/html 2024-08-27T01:00:26+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:eukaryote?rev=1724720426&do=diff eukaryote: organism whose cells have membrane bound organelles, including the nucleus. text/html 2024-08-31T02:25:47+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:exon?rev=1725071147&do=diff Exon: the portion of a pre-mRNA that contains codons. pre-mRNAs usually contain multiple exons that are interspersed with introns. Formally, exons are defined as a component of pre-mRNA, but the DNA sequence that codes for exons can also be informally referred to as exons. text/html 2024-08-31T23:04:29+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:expressed_sequence_tag?rev=1725145469&do=diff Expressed sequence tag (EST): a cDNA from a cDNA library that has been sequenced and catalogued. text/html 2024-08-31T02:11:19+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:expression?rev=1725070279&do=diff Expression: a term used to describe the idea that the function of a gene is apparent and can be observed. Genes may not always be expressed all the time in all places. text/html 2024-09-01T04:28:04+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:extragenic_suppressor?rev=1725164884&do=diff Extragenic_suppressor: a mutation in a gene that acts as a suppressor mutation for a mutation in a different gene. text/html 2024-09-01T19:04:21+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:f_plasmid?rev=1725217461&do=diff F: “F” can have several different related definitions: * An F plasmid is a type of naturally occurring low copy number plasmid in E. coli that can move from one host cell to another via conjugation, a type of sex in bacteria (“F” stands for fertility). F plasmids text/html 2024-09-02T04:21:15+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:floxed_allele?rev=1725250875&do=diff Floxed allele: an allele that has been engineered to contain two $loxP$ sites, such that when Cre recombinase is expressed, the allele undergoes recombination and deletes the sequence in between the $loxP$ sites. text/html 2024-08-31T23:41:38+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:fluorophone?rev=1725147698&do=diff Fluorophore: a molecule that emits a particular wavelength (i.e., color) of light after it has been stimulated with a lower wavelength (i.e., higher energy) of light. For instance, fluorescein is a fluorophore is stimulated by blue light and emits green light. text/html 2024-09-01T23:48:52+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:forward_genetics?rev=1725234532&do=diff Forward genetics: an approach to studying genes wherein a researcher starts with mutants with interesting phenotypes and uses mapping and cloning methods to try and identify the physical identity of the gene. Compare to reverse genetics. text/html 2024-09-02T03:29:55+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:founder?rev=1725247795&do=diff Founder: when making genetically modified organisms, a founder is an individual from the first generation of organisms that are expected to carry the desired genetic modification in the germline, such that the genetic modification has the potential to be passed down to offspring. text/html 2024-08-27T05:33:57+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:fractional_notation?rev=1724736837&do=diff Fractional notation: a style of genotype notation that uses “fractions”, e.g., $\frac{unc\text{-}4}{+}$. We strongly encourage this notational style as it generally is preferred by genetics researchers. text/html 2024-09-01T00:46:08+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:frameshift_mutation?rev=1725151568&do=diff Frameshift mutation: an indel mutation in which the net number of base pairs added or removed is not a multiple of three. This disrupts the open reading frame and drastically alters the amino acid sequence past the site of the indel; this usually results in a premature stop codon. text/html 2024-09-02T03:45:48+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:g-418?rev=1725248748&do=diff G-418: a drug that kills eukaryotic cells. A gene called $neo^R$ confers resistance to G-418. text/html 2024-09-01T01:35:40+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:gain_of_function?rev=1725154540&do=diff Gain of function: A mutation that has increased or different activity as the wildtype allele. Both hypermorphic and neomorphic mutations can be called gain of function mutations. text/html 2024-08-30T01:53:01+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:gametes?rev=1724982781&do=diff Gamete: a specialized (usually haploid) cell used for sexual reproduction. Eggs (oocytes) and sperm are gametes. text/html 2024-09-02T03:51:28+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:ganciclovir?rev=1725249088&do=diff Ganciclovir: a drug (technically, a prodrug) that is harmless to eukaryotic cells but causes cells to die if it is acted upon by a gene called $tk^{HSV}$ from herpes simplex virus 1. text/html 2024-08-31T02:04:13+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:gene_product?rev=1725069853&do=diff Gene product: the molecule that is produced based on information contained within a gene and provides function to the organism. Most of the time, a gene product is a protein. Sometimes gene products can also be an RNA molecule. In forward genetic analysis, we can't formally tell if a gene product is text/html 2024-09-02T00:07:53+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:gene?rev=1725235673&do=diff Gene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) text/html 2024-08-31T01:51:18+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:genetic_code?rev=1725069078&do=diff Genetic code: the code that matches codons with specific amino acids. Since each codon is 3 nucleotides long (i.e., the genetic code is a triplet code) and there are 4 different RNA nucleotides (G, A, U, and C), the genetic code could in theory specify up to $4^3=64$ different amino acids. But since there are only 20 different text/html 2024-08-30T02:41:55+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:genetic_map?rev=1724985715&do=diff Genetic map: a map that shows gene positions on chromosomes measured in centiMorgans. text/html 2024-08-28T21:55:56+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:genetic_mapping?rev=1724882156&do=diff Genetic mapping: a term describing a variety of different experimental approaches used to determine the physical locations of genes on chromosomes. text/html 2024-08-31T22:58:04+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:genome?rev=1725145084&do=diff Genome: a dataset that contains all DNA information of an organism. Most of the time, this also includes annotation and curation of that information, e.g., the names, locations, and functions of genes within the genome. As an adjective (“genomic”), this usually is used in the context of text/html 2024-09-01T21:49:52+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:genomic_library?rev=1725227392&do=diff Genomic library: a library generated by taking the genome of an organism, fragmenting the DNA, and cloning and archiving the collection of clones for research purposes. A good quality genomic library will have fragment sizes that are sufficient to encompass entire genes and will come close to representing the entire text/html 2024-09-02T04:06:59+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:genotype?rev=1725250019&do=diff Genotype: the combination of alleles within an organism or strain. When used as a verb, it means to determine the genotype experimentally. text/html 2024-09-02T03:28:07+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:germline?rev=1725247687&do=diff Germline: cells and tissue of the reproductive system. text/html 2024-09-03T05:59:25+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:glossary?rev=1725343165&do=diff TNBGGA Glossary * adeno-associated_virus * allele * alternative_splicing * amino_acid * amorphic_mutation * ampicillin * anaphase * antibiotics * antimorphic_mutation * antiparallel * autosome * auxotroph * bacteria * bacteriophage * base_pair * blastocyst * c-terminus * caenorhabditis_elegans * capsid * cdna_library * centromere * chiasma * chimera * chimeric_protein * chromatid * chromatin * chromosome * chromosome_theory * cis-acting_regulatory_element * cis_tra… text/html 2024-09-02T01:45:25+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:gluscose_repression?rev=1725241525&do=diff Glucose repression: a phenomenon in many different organisms wherein genes that are normally induced by alternate carbon sources (such as lactose or galactose) become mostly uninducible when glucose is present. text/html 2024-08-27T01:35:25+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:haploid?rev=1724722525&do=diff Haploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has only one copy of genetic information. Haploid cells typically arise from meiosis (or mitosis of a haploid mother cell). text/html 2024-08-27T05:17:43+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:heterozygous?rev=1724735863&do=diff Heterozygous: a state for a diploid organism wherein the two alleles for a gene are different from each other. text/html 2024-08-27T04:42:24+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:histidine?rev=1724733744&do=diff Histidine: Abbreviated as His or H; one of the 20 amino acids that are used to form proteins. text/html 2024-09-02T01:12:35+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:histone?rev=1725239555&do=diff Histone: in eukaryotes, histones are proteins that are used to organize DNA within the nucleus. Eight different individual histone proteins come together to form a structure called the histone octamer. text/html 2024-09-02T00:44:40+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:homolgous_recombination?rev=1725237880&do=diff Homologous recombination: DNA recombination between two pieces of DNA that have a high degree of homology (i.e., nearly but not necessarily perfectly identical to each other). The length of DNA sequence homology needed for homologous recombination varies from species to species. text/html 2024-08-27T01:04:10+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:homologous_chromosomes?rev=1724720650&do=diff Homologous chromosomes: highly similar but non-identical chromosomes that are the same size and contain the same genes. text/html 2024-09-01T18:39:26+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:homologous_recombination?rev=1725215966&do=diff Homologous recombination: recombination that occurs between segments of DNA that have highly similar sequences. The length of DNA needed for homologous recombination varies from species to species. text/html 2024-09-02T03:42:51+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:homology_arm?rev=1725248571&do=diff Homology arm: a region of a targeting construct used to make knockout alleles that matches the DNA sequence of the endogenous locus. text/html 2024-08-27T05:19:48+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:homozygous?rev=1724735988&do=diff Homozygous: a state for a diploid organism wherein the two alleles for a gene are identical to each other. text/html 2024-09-01T21:39:57+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:host_restriction?rev=1725226797&do=diff Host restriction: a phenotype in bacteria wherein a bacterial strain does not permit a bacteriophage to replicate. text/html 2024-09-02T01:08:38+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:housekeeping_gene?rev=1725239318&do=diff Housekeeping gene: a gene that is always expressed in all cell types, usually that has some function that is universal to all cells. “Housekeeping gene” tends to be used in the context of multicellular organisms; “constitutive” tends to be used more for unicellular organisms. text/html 2024-09-02T04:01:01+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:humanized?rev=1725249661&do=diff Humanized: in genetics, a humanized organism is a genetically modified organism that has had one or more of its genes replaced with human versions of those genes, in order to create an animal model with which to study human genes in vivo. text/html 2024-08-31T01:03:58+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:hydrogen_bond?rev=1725066238&do=diff Hydrogen bond: a type of weak noncovalent bond that forms between atoms that are part of a dipole movement. text/html 2024-08-31T23:29:39+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:hydroxyl?rev=1725146979&do=diff Hydroxyl: a functional group with the chemical formula -OH. text/html 2024-09-01T01:27:47+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:hypermorphic_mutation?rev=1725154067&do=diff Hypermorphic mutation: assuming a wildtype allele has 100% gene function, a hypermomorphic mutation is a mutant allele that has >100% gene function. Also called a gain of function mutation. text/html 2024-09-01T01:25:29+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:hypomorphic_mutation?rev=1725153929&do=diff Hypomorphic mutation: assuming a wildtype allele has 100% gene function, a hypomomorphic mutation is a mutant allele that has <100% gene function. Also called a partial loss of function mutation. text/html 2024-09-01T00:11:28+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:illumina_sequencing?rev=1725149488&do=diff Illumina sequencing: named after the company that developed this method, Illumina sequencing is currently the most widely used NGS technology for high throughput DNA sequencing. text/html 2024-09-02T02:26:05+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:in_vitro?rev=1725243965&do=diff In vitro: taking place outside of a living organism, usually in a test tube or Petri dish. text/html 2024-09-02T02:26:54+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:in_vivo?rev=1725244014&do=diff in vivo: occurring inside a living organism. text/html 2024-09-01T00:44:47+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:indel_mutation?rev=1725151487&do=diff Indel mutation: “Indel” is a portmanteau of “insertion” and “deletion”. Indels are mutations that insert or delete base pairs from a gene sequence. text/html 2024-09-01T22:41:59+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:inducer?rev=1725230519&do=diff Inducer: a molecule that triggers the expression of a gene or genes. Examples in E. coli include lactose and IPTG, which induce expression of the Lac operon in E. coli, and maltose, which induces expression of the Mal operon. An example in yeast is galactose, which induces expression of Gal genes. text/html 2024-09-01T23:11:54+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:inducible?rev=1725232314&do=diff Inducible: a term describing a pattern of gene expression, wherein genes or operons are not expressed until some kind of condition is met, e.g., inducer is present. Not all genes are naturally inducible; some genes are naturally constitutive. text/html 2024-09-01T23:40:59+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:initiator?rev=1725234059&do=diff Initiator: in bacterial genetics, an initiator is a cis-acting element that positively regulates the expression of a target gene or operon. text/html 2024-08-31T02:27:51+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:intergenic_region?rev=1725071271&do=diff Intergenic region: a region of DNA that sits between genes and does not contain other genes or coding sequences. Integenic regions usually contain various cis-acting regulatory elements that control the expression of nearby genes. text/html 2024-09-01T04:27:36+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:intragenic_suppressor?rev=1725164856&do=diff Intragenic suppressor: a mutation in a gene that acts as a suppressor mutation for a different mutation in the same gene. text/html 2024-08-31T02:46:50+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:intron_splicing?rev=1725072410&do=diff Intron splicing: the act of remove introns and joining exons from pre-mRNA to form an mRNA. This occurs in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and is catalyzed by an enzyme called the spliceosome. text/html 2024-08-31T02:23:47+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:intron?rev=1725071027&do=diff Intron: sequences in a pre-mRNA that sit between exons and are removed by splicing. Formally speaking, introns are defined as being part of pre-mRNA, but the DNA sequence that codes for introns can also be informally described as introns. text/html 2024-09-01T22:59:22+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:iptg?rev=1725231562&do=diff IPTG: isopropyl β-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside, an inducer of the Lac operon. IPTG binds to the Lac repressor protein (also known as LacI). text/html 2024-08-27T04:27:00+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:isomorphic?rev=1724732820&do=diff Isomorphic: a term to describe the phenomenon that phenotypes for a mutant are essentially the same in a haploid or a diploid. text/html 2024-09-02T04:15:42+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:knock-in?rev=1725250542&do=diff Knock-in: a reverse genetic experimental approach that replaces an endogenous copy of a gene with a modified one. text/html 2024-09-02T01:41:44+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:knockout?rev=1725241304&do=diff Knockout: a knockout allele is a null allele generated through reverse genetics. text/html 2024-09-01T23:34:08+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:lac_operon?rev=1725233648&do=diff Lac operon: an operon in E. coli that contains the cis-acting regulatory elements $lacP$ and $lacO$, and the protein coding genes $lacZ$, $lacY$, and $lacA$. The Lac operon is an example of a negatively-regulated operon. text/html 2024-09-01T22:53:05+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:laci?rev=1725231185&do=diff LacI: the protein encoded by the $lacI$ gene; also called the Lac repressor protein. Binds to lactose or IPTG; upon binding, it loses the ability to bind to $lacO$. text/html 2024-09-01T22:47:37+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:lacz?rev=1725230857&do=diff LacZ: the E. coli $lacZ$ gene codes for the protein LacZ, also known as the enzyme β-galactosidase; that is, it catalyzes the hydrolysis of the disaccharide lactose into the monosaccharides galactose and glucose. text/html 2024-09-01T21:45:27+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:library?rev=1725227127&do=diff Library: in genetics research, a library refers to a collection of clones representing a set of genetic information, e.g., a genomic library or a cDNA library. text/html 2024-08-28T21:03:56+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:linkage?rev=1724879036&do=diff Linkage: two loci are linked to each other if they are less than 50 m.u. apart. Two loci are unlinked if they are either (1) greater than 50 m.u. apart on the same chromosome, or; (2) are on separate chromosomes. text/html 2025-02-16T16:49:32+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:locus?rev=1739724572&do=diff Locus (plural form: loci): a physical location of a gene; often used as a synonym for a gene. text/html 2024-09-01T01:26:55+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:loss_of_function?rev=1725154015&do=diff Loss of function: a general term used to describe mutant alleles that have less activity than wildtype. Amorphic and hypomorphic mutations are loss of function mutations. text/html 2024-09-02T00:02:48+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:lysogenic?rev=1725235368&do=diff Lysogenic: a stage in the bacteriophage life cycle wherein the phage DNA integrates into the host cell genome and lays dormant. text/html 2024-09-02T00:02:07+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:lytic?rev=1725235327&do=diff Lytic: a stage in the bacteriophage life cycle where the phage lyse their host cells and are released into the environment. text/html 2024-09-01T23:34:32+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:mal_operon?rev=1725233672&do=diff Mal operon: an operon in E. coli that includes the cis-acting elements of a promoter and an intiator, and the protein coding genes $malP$ and $malQ$. The Mal operon is an example of a positively-regulated operon. text/html 2024-09-01T23:35:18+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:malt?rev=1725233718&do=diff MalT: a protein encoded by the $malT$ gene that acts as a transactivator for the Mal operon. text/html 2024-08-30T02:38:18+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:map_unit?rev=1724985498&do=diff Map unit (m.u.): a unit of genetic distance defined as 1% recombination. Also called a centiMorgan or cM. text/html 2024-09-18T16:34:37+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:marker?rev=1726677277&do=diff Marker: an allele of a gene that provides an easily observable phenotype. Markers are usually cloned or least well mapped. They are used as genetic landmarks in various genetic experiments. In some cases, markers do not have easily observable phenotypes and can only be detected using molecular methods (e.g., SNPs or SSRs). text/html 2024-12-04T15:35:56+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:meiosis_i?rev=1733326556&do=diff Meiosis I: the first cell division of meiosis. Crossing over occurs during Meiosis I. text/html 2024-12-04T15:36:22+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:meiosis_ii?rev=1733326582&do=diff Meiosis II: the second cell division of meiosis. text/html 2024-08-27T05:57:36+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:meiosis?rev=1724738256&do=diff Meiosis: a process involving two sequential cell divisions that usually produces four gametes (reproductive cells such as sperm or eggs). text/html 2024-08-27T05:27:16+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:mendelian_notation?rev=1724736436&do=diff Mendelian notation: a method to write genotypes invented by Gregor Mendel. Examples include: Pp, Tt, Ww, etc. We strongly discourage the use of Mendelian notation. text/html 2024-08-27T06:04:53+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:mendels_first_law?rev=1724738693&do=diff Mendel's First Law: also called Mendel's Law of Segregation. It states that during gamete formation, the two alleles at a gene locus segregate from each toher; each gamete has an equal opportunity of containing either allele. text/html 2024-08-27T06:26:23+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:mendels_second_law?rev=1724739983&do=diff Mendel's Second Law: also called the Law of Independent Assortment. It states that alleles from each genetic loci segregate independently of each other. This “law” actually only applies to unlinked genes. text/html 2024-09-01T18:57:51+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:merodiploid?rev=1725217071&do=diff Merodiploid: used to describe an organism that is naturally haploid but is partially diploid for a portion of its genome due to the presence of an episome that contains a chromosomal fragment. text/html 2024-08-31T01:32:05+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:messenger_rna?rev=1725067925&do=diff messenger RNA (mRNA): an RNA molecule that codes for protein. text/html 2024-09-02T00:19:49+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:metazoan?rev=1725236389&do=diff Metazoan: of Kingdom Animalia. text/html 2024-08-27T04:38:17+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:minimal_media?rev=1724733497&do=diff Minimal media: growth media that only contains (other than some kind of carbon source as food) inorganic nutrients, usually some nitrogen and phosphorous containing salts. text/html 2024-09-01T00:41:43+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:missense_mutation?rev=1725151303&do=diff Missense mutation: a mutation that causes a change in an the amino acid specified at a particular location in the gene sequence. text/html 2024-08-27T00:41:52+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:mitosis?rev=1724719312&do=diff Mitosis: a type of cell division that generates two genetically identical daughter cells. text/html 2024-08-30T02:54:37+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:molecular_biology?rev=1724986477&do=diff Molecular biology: the study of nucleic acids, specifically DNA and RNA. text/html 2024-08-27T06:12:24+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:monohybrid_cross?rev=1724739144&do=diff Monohybrid cross: a cross, developed by Gregor Mendel, that illustrates Mendel's First Law. See Chapter 03. text/html 2024-08-27T01:29:44+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:mother_daughter_cells?rev=1724722184&do=diff Mother/daughter cells: in cell division, a mother cell divides to form two daughter cells. text/html 2024-09-01T01:41:07+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:mutagen?rev=1725154867&do=diff Mutagen: a chemical or source of ionizing radiation that has the potential to damage DNA such that the DNA sequence will be altered. text/html 2024-08-27T04:58:41+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:mutant?rev=1724734721&do=diff Mutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference. text/html 2024-08-30T01:50:03+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:mutation?rev=1724982603&do=diff Mutation: a change in the DNA of a gene that results in a change of phenotype compared to a reference wildtype allele. See also: mutant. text/html 2024-09-02T02:09:43+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:n-terminus?rev=1725242983&do=diff N-terminus: the end of a polypeptide chain that contains the first amino acid that was translated. text/html 2024-09-01T23:55:54+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:negative_regulator?rev=1725234954&do=diff Negative regulator: in the context of gene regulation, a negative regulator is a gene whose activity blocks the expression of another gene. Compare to repressor. text/html 2024-09-01T01:29:07+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:neomorphic_mutation?rev=1725154147&do=diff Neomorphic mutation: a mutation that gives a gene a new or different function than the wildtype allele. Also called a gain of function mutation. text/html 2024-08-31T23:12:43+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:next_generation_sequencing?rev=1725145963&do=diff Next generation sequencing (NGS): DNA sequencing technologies that were developed after Sanger sequencing and are much more higher throughput than Sanger sequencing. Includes methods such as Illumina sequencing, 454 pyrosequencing, Nanopore sequencing, etc. text/html 2024-09-01T04:04:50+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:nitrogenous_base?rev=1725163490&do=diff Nitrogenous bases: ringed chemical structures that are part of nucleotides. They include adenine (A), guanine (G), thymine (T), and cytosine (C) in DNA, and uracil (U) that substitutes for thymine in RNA. text/html 2024-08-30T01:58:51+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:non-sister_chromatids?rev=1724983131&do=diff Non-sister chromatids: Chromatids that are derived from two different chromosomes in a homologous chromosome pair during meiosis I. See also: sister chromatids. text/html 2024-09-01T00:43:48+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:nonsense_mutation?rev=1725151428&do=diff Nonsense mutation: a mutation that converts a regular (amino acid-coding) codon into a stop codon. text/html 2024-09-01T04:31:11+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:nonsense_suppressor?rev=1725165071&do=diff Nonsense suppressor: a mutation in a tRNA gene wherein the anticodon loop sequence has mutated such that it is complementary to a stop codon. This has the effect of being able to suppress some nonsense mutations. text/html 2024-09-02T01:13:33+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:nucleosome?rev=1725239613&do=diff Nucleosome: In eukaryotes, approximately 146 bp of chromosomal DNA wraps around a histone octamer to form a nucleosome. The nucleosome is the basic unit of chromatin. text/html 2024-08-31T23:35:36+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:nucleotide?rev=1725147336&do=diff Nucleotide: molecules that are polymerized to form nucleic acids (DNA or RNA). Includes dNTPs and NTPs. text/html 2024-08-27T01:09:31+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:nucleus?rev=1724720971&do=diff Nucleus: in eukaryotes, the membrane-bound organelle in cells that contains the chromosomes. text/html 2024-08-27T05:37:49+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:obligate_diploid?rev=1724737069&do=diff Obligate diploid: a species wherein all cells except gametes are diploid. text/html 2024-08-31T02:43:03+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:open_reading_frame?rev=1725072183&do=diff Open reading frame (ORF): an RNA sequence that begins with a start codon and continues for at least a defined distance (usually 100 codons, or 300 nucleotides long) without encountering an in-frame stop codon. text/html 2024-09-01T23:31:06+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:operator?rev=1725233466&do=diff Operator: in bacterial genetics, an operator is a cis-acting genetic element that negatively regulates the expression of nearby genes. $lacO$ of the Lac operon is an example of an operator. text/html 2024-09-01T21:34:34+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:operon?rev=1725226474&do=diff Operon: two or more genes that are transcribed together on an mRNA from a single promoter. Most commonly seen in bacteria; very rare in eukaryotes. text/html 2024-08-27T04:45:41+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:pathway?rev=1724733941&do=diff Pathway: a series of reactions or events that occur in sequence with some common goal or purpose. text/html 2024-08-28T21:45:46+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:pedigree_analysis?rev=1724881546&do=diff Pedigree analysis: a method used to examine and analyze genetic inheritance using a family tree. text/html 2024-08-31T01:59:08+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:peptide_bond?rev=1725069548&do=diff Peptide bond: covalent bonds that connect amino acids to form a polypeptide. text/html 2024-08-27T03:41:27+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:petri_dish?rev=1724730087&do=diff Petri dish: a round dish, usually 5-10 cm in diameter, that can contain growth media to grow cells in vitro. text/html 2024-08-27T05:01:33+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:phenotype?rev=1724734893&do=diff Phenotype: an observable feature or property of an organism. text/html 2024-08-31T23:30:23+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:phosphate?rev=1725147023&do=diff Phosphate: a functional group with the chemical formula -PO43-. text/html 2024-09-01T18:43:32+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:pilus?rev=1725216212&do=diff Pilus (plural: pili): a thin tube-like structure that forms between two bacterial cells used to transfer genetic material (such as F plasmids) between cells. text/html 2024-09-01T21:31:33+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:plaque?rev=1725226293&do=diff Plaque: in bacteriology and genetics, a plaque forms in a bacteriophage infection experiment. Bacteria are grown as a lawn (i.e., they evenly cover the entire surface of a Petri dish), then injected with bacteriophage. The phage will kill and lyse bacterial cells, leaving a clear spot on the lawn. This clear spot is called a plaque. Plaques contain text/html 2024-09-01T21:14:53+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:plasmid?rev=1725225293&do=diff Plasmid: a circular episome found in bacteria and yeast. Plasmids are commonly used as cloning vectors. text/html 2024-09-02T01:48:32+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:pleiotropy?rev=1725241712&do=diff Pleiotrophy: describes a state wherein a mutation in a single gene causes multiple, seemingly unrelated mutant defects. This usually indicates that a gene may have more than one function. text/html 2024-09-02T00:14:00+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:pliceosome?rev=1725236040&do=diff Spliceosome: a large and complex enzyme located in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells that catalyzes intron splicing. text/html 2024-09-01T00:00:05+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:polymerase_chain_reaction?rev=1725148805&do=diff Polymerase chain reaction (PCR): An experimental technique invented by Kary Mullis used to exponentially amplify DNA in vitro. PCR made obtaining large quantities of DNA for analysis much faster and easier than using traditional cloning methods. text/html 2024-09-01T23:56:42+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:positive_regulator?rev=1725235002&do=diff Positive regulator: in the context of gene regulation, a positive regulator is a gene whose activity increases the expression of another gene. Compare to transactivator/activator. text/html 2024-08-31T01:38:38+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:pre-mrna?rev=1725068318&do=diff pre-mRNA: In eukaryotes, genes are transcribed as a longer RNA molecule called pre-mRNA, which is then processed via splicing, 5'-capping, and 3' polyadenylation before it is transported into the cytoplasm and becomes a mature mRNA. text/html 2024-09-02T03:35:31+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:preimplantation?rev=1725248131&do=diff Preimplantation: in mammals, a preimplantation embryo is an embryo that has not yet attached to the uterus. text/html 2024-08-31T23:27:08+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:primer?rev=1725146828&do=diff Primer: (1) A short (usually 15-30 nt long, depending on application) piece of ssDNA that is synthesized in vitro and used in applications such as DNA sequencing and PCR. In this context, primers can also be called oligonucleotides. (2) a free 3'-OH end on a nucleic acid that can be used for initiating text/html 2024-08-27T06:18:46+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:product_rule?rev=1724739526&do=diff Product rule: in probability theory, the probability of two independent events both occurring (i.e., rolling snake eyes on a pair of dice) is the product of the probability of the individual events (i.e., $\frac{1}{6}\times\frac{1}{6}=\frac{1}{36}$). text/html 2024-08-27T06:00:36+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:progeny?rev=1724738436&do=diff Progeny: a synonym for offspring. text/html 2024-08-27T03:07:38+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:prokaryote?rev=1724728058&do=diff Prokaryote: an organism that does not have membrane bound organelles. In this book prokaryotes refer to bacteria. text/html 2024-09-01T22:58:56+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:promoter?rev=1725231536&do=diff Promoter: has multiple closely related but subtly different meanings depending on context: * In bacteria, a promoter is a cis-acting DNA sequence near the transcription start site of a gene or operon that binds to bacterial RNA polymerase. * In eukaryotes, the formal definition of a promoter (also called a basal promoter) is a RNA text/html 2024-09-02T03:26:46+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:pronucleus?rev=1725247606&do=diff Pronucleus: In a zygote, the nuclei of the sperm and oocyte that have not yet fused to form a diploid nucleus. text/html 2024-08-31T01:52:54+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:protein_translation?rev=1725069174&do=diff Protein translation: the process of using an mRNA as a template to synthesize a protein based on the genetic code, using ribosomes. text/html 2024-08-27T03:10:49+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:protein?rev=1724728249&do=diff Protein: a molecule that is formed by the translation of messenger RNAs (mRNAs). Functions that proteins provide are what usually give organisms their phenotypes. text/html 2024-08-27T04:32:10+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:prototroph?rev=1724733130&do=diff Prototroph: an organism that can synthesize all nutrients it needs to survive and proliferate (such as amino acids or nucleotides) from inorganic molecules. text/html 2024-09-02T03:18:09+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:pseudogene?rev=1725247089&do=diff Psuedogene: a DNA sequence that resembles a gene but cannot code for a protein, likely due to accumulated mutations over evolutionary time. text/html 2024-09-02T04:49:52+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:public_domain?rev=1725252592&do=diff Public domain: see Wikipedia entry on public domain. text/html 2024-08-27T05:29:35+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:punnett_square?rev=1724736575&do=diff Punnett square: a $n \times n$ grid used to determine the genotypes of a cross involving $n$ different genes. WE strongly discourage the use of Punnett squares. text/html 2024-09-01T01:45:44+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:pyrimidine_dimer?rev=1725155144&do=diff Pyrimidine dimer: a structure formed by adjacent pyrimidine bases in DNA as a result of exposure to UV light. text/html 2024-09-01T21:13:22+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:r_plasmid?rev=1725225202&do=diff R plasmid: a type of small bacterial high-copy number plasmid that is commonly used as a vector for molecular cloning. text/html 2024-08-27T03:45:46+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:recessive?rev=1724730346&do=diff Recessive: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Recessive alleles do not exhibit their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele. text/html 2024-08-28T22:11:44+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:recombinant?rev=1724883104&do=diff Recombinant: (adj.) Describing something that has undergone recombination, e.g., recombinant DNA or recombinant offspring. “Non-parental” is a synonym when referring to organisms. (n.) Something that has undergone recombination, e.g., “This fly is a recombinant.” text/html 2024-08-28T22:05:42+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:recombination?rev=1724882742&do=diff Recombination: Recombination can have slightly different meanings depending on context: * In the context of genetic crosses (usually a dihybrid cross or a test cross), recombination refers to the phenomena where the phenotype of the F2 offspring is different than either parent (P generation). $lox$ text/html 2024-09-02T00:49:51+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:replica_plating?rev=1725238191&do=diff Replica plating: a technique in microbiology that allows you to duplicate colony patterns on different Petri dishes such that clones can be easily tested on different kinds of selective media. text/html 2024-09-02T00:24:58+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:reporter_gene?rev=1725236698&do=diff Reporter gene: a gene whose gene product has an easily observed function and that can be used to indirectly measure the level of transcription determined by a promoter or other cis-acting regulatory elements. text/html 2024-09-01T23:52:03+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:repressor?rev=1725234723&do=diff Repressor: a DNA binding protein that binds to negatively acting cis-acting elements such as operators in bacteria to inhibit transcription. Compare to negative regulator. text/html 2024-09-01T21:21:55+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:restriction_enzyme?rev=1725225715&do=diff Restriction enzyme: an type of enzyme, usually commercially available, that is used to cleave (restrict) dsDNA at specific 4, 6, or 8 (less common) bp recognition sequences. text/html 2024-09-02T01:37:48+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:reverse_genetics?rev=1725241068&do=diff Reverse genetics: an approach to studying genes wherein a researcher starts with knowledge of the physical identity of a gene (i.e., the DNA sequence of the gene) but does not know its function. In reverse genetics, the researcher uses various molecular genetic tools to create modified alleles that are reintroduced into an organism, with the goal of trying to deduce the function of the text/html 2024-08-31T22:55:14+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:reverse_transcriptase?rev=1725144914&do=diff Reverse transcriptase: an enzyme that is usually isolated from retroviruses. It catalyzes the formation of cDNA using RNA (usually mRNA) as a template. text/html 2024-09-01T21:53:36+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:reverse_transcription?rev=1725227616&do=diff Reverse transcription: the formation of cDNAs from mRNAs using reverse transcriptase. text/html 2024-09-01T04:06:24+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:ribonucleotide_triphosphate?rev=1725163584&do=diff Ribonucleotide triphosphate: the basic building blocks for making RNA. Includes ATP, GTP, CTP, and UTP. text/html 2024-08-31T02:00:31+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:ribosome?rev=1725069631&do=diff Ribosome: a very large and complex enzyme formed from both protein and rRNA subunits. Its primary function is to catalyze translation. text/html 2024-09-01T23:02:18+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:rna_polymerase?rev=1725231738&do=diff RNA polymerase: the enzyme that carries out RNA transcription. There are many different types of RNA polymerase, but in this book we collectively refer to them as just “RNA polymerase” for simplicity. text/html 2024-08-31T23:09:36+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:rna_sequencing?rev=1725145776&do=diff RNA sequencing (RNAseq): an experimental technique that sequences all the RNAs in a sample. It is based off of converting RNAs into cDNAs with reverse transcriptase, followed by Illumina sequencing. text/html 2025-02-27T01:42:24+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:rna_transcription?rev=1740620544&do=diff RNA transcription: the process of RNA polymerase using the DNA sequence of a gene as a template to form an mRNA (in prokaryotes) or pre-mRNA (in eukaryotes). In most cases, “transcription” implies RNA transcription. text/html 2024-08-31T01:34:06+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:rna?rev=1725068046&do=diff RNA: ribonucleic acid. A (usually) single-stranded molecule that is formed through the transcription of genes. While most types of RNAs are mRNAs (or pre-mRNAs), there are other types of RNAs that do not code for proteins, such as rRNAs, tRNAs, and others. text/html 2024-08-31T23:32:35+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:sanger_sequencing?rev=1725147155&do=diff Sanger sequencing: an older DNA sequencing technology invented in 1977 by Fredrick Sanger. text/html 2024-09-01T00:27:44+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:screen?rev=1725150464&do=diff Screen: a screen is a process through which a researcher looks through a population of individuals in an attempt to find rare individuals with certain phenotypes, usually with no obvious way to enrich for the rare individuals. contrast to a selection. text/html 2024-09-08T17:09:56+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:select?rev=1725815396&do=diff Selection: There are two distinct but somewhat related definitions for this term: In model organism research, a selection is a process through which a researcher is attempting to find rare individuals with certain phenotypes and has some way of enriching for the rare individuals by killing off all other individuals that do not match the search criteria. Contrast to a text/html 2024-08-31T01:16:46+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:semiconservative?rev=1725067006&do=diff Semiconservative: a term used to describe how DNA replicates. Each time a dsDNA molecule is replicated to produce two “new” dsDNA moecules, one of the ssDNA strands of each “new” dsDNA actually is one the ssDNA strands from the starting dsDNA molecule. Thus, each “new” dsDNA molecule is only 50% new. text/html 2024-09-02T03:15:47+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:semidominant?rev=1725246947&do=diff Semidominant: an allele $X$ is semidominant if a $\frac{X}{X}$ homozygous individual is fully mutant, a $\frac{X}{x}$ individual is partially or weakly mutant, and a $\frac{x}{x}$ individual is wildtype. text/html 2024-08-31T02:19:51+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:sequence?rev=1725070791&do=diff Sequence: the precise order of monomers in a polymer. In DNA, it refers to the order of G, A, T, and C nucleotides. In RNA, it refers to the order of G, A, U, and C nucleotides. In proteins, it refers to the order of amino acids. text/html 2024-08-31T02:40:15+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:sequencing?rev=1725072015&do=diff Sequencing: the procedure used to determine the sequence of a biological polymer such as DNA, RNA, or protein. Although there are indeed biochemical techniques that can be used to directly sequence RNA or protein, these methods are almost never used in modern molecular genetics research - instead, RNA text/html 2024-09-02T04:38:14+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:serotype?rev=1725251894&do=diff Serotype: in the context of Adeno-associated viruses, a serotype is a variant of the virus with different capsid proteins. AAVs of different serotypes can infect different cell types. text/html 2024-08-28T21:24:26+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:sex_chromosomes?rev=1724880266&do=diff Sex chromosomes: in some species, these are a set of chromosomes that determine sex. In some species, females are homogametic (XX) and males are heterogametic (XY), whereas in other species it is the other way around (homogametic ZZ males and heterogametic ZW females). Not all species use sex text/html 2024-08-28T21:36:38+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:sex_linked?rev=1724880998&do=diff Sex linkage: a gene is said to be sex-linked if it maps to a sex chromosome. text/html 2024-08-27T06:15:14+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:sib_cross?rev=1724739314&do=diff Sib cross: a genetic cross wherein males and females from the same brood (i.e., brothers and sisters) are mated to each other. Similar to a self cross. text/html 2024-09-02T02:00:11+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:silencer?rev=1725242411&do=diff Silencer: a more inclusive term for a URS. One reason this is a more inclusive term is because not all silencersare located upstream of genes; some silencers are located downstream of a gene, and in some cases can even be located inside a gene. text/html 2024-08-31T00:57:26+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:single_stranded_dna?rev=1725065846&do=diff Single-stranded DNA (ssDNA): a polymerized chain of deoxyribonucleotides that is not paired with a complementary polymer. Usually formed by denaturing dsDNA with heat or other methods. text/html 2024-08-27T01:17:34+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:sister_chromatid?rev=1724721454&do=diff Sister chromatids: a pair of chromosome-like structures that contain two identical dsDNA molecules that are the result of DNA replication. text/html 2024-08-27T01:11:18+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:somatic_cell?rev=1724721078&do=diff Somatic cell: any cell in a multicellular organism that is not a reproductive (germ) cell. text/html 2024-08-27T01:21:49+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:spindle?rev=1724721709&do=diff Spindle: a rope-like structure that forms during mitosis or meiosis and pulls chromosomes apart. text/html 2024-08-27T04:23:14+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:spore?rev=1724732594&do=diff Spore: in fungi (including yeast), ascospores (spores) are the equivalent of the four daughter cells of meiosis. text/html 2024-08-31T01:41:16+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:start_codon?rev=1725068476&do=diff Start codon: usually the first AUG RNA sequence starting from the 5' end of the mRNA and reading in the 3' direction. AUG signals the ribosome to start translation. AUG also codes for the amino acid methionine. text/html 2024-09-02T03:20:03+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:stem_cell?rev=1725247203&do=diff Stem cell: a cell that has the potential to adapt different cell fates to form different kinds of tissues. Not all stem cells are embryonic stem cells. text/html 2024-08-31T01:44:38+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:stop_codon?rev=1725068678&do=diff Stop codon: a codon that instructs the ribosome to terminate translation. Stop codons are UGA, UAG, or UAA in the universal genetic code. text/html 2024-09-02T04:34:10+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:strain?rev=1725251650&do=diff Strain or line: refers to a pool or colony of individuals or cultured cells of a desired genotype or phenotype that is mostly homogeneous and can be bred and/or produced in perpetuity for research or commercial purposes. “Strain” tends to be used more for microorganisms and text/html 2024-09-01T04:24:13+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:suppressor_mutation?rev=1725164653&do=diff Suppressor mutation: a mutation that causes the mutant phenotype of another mutation to revert to wildtype. text/html 2024-09-01T22:31:37+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:susbtrate?rev=1725229897&do=diff Substrate: a molecule that undergoes a biochemical reaction catalyzed by an enzyme. By inference, a substrate physically binds to its cognate enzyme. text/html 2024-09-01T00:04:00+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:taq_polymerase?rev=1725149040&do=diff Taq polymerase: a heat stable DNA polymerase isolated from the bacterium Thermus aquaticus, which grows in deep-sea thermal vents. text/html 2024-09-02T02:24:28+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:targeting_construct?rev=1725243868&do=diff Targeting construct: a piece of DNA engineered in vitro that is used to make a knockout allele. text/html 2024-09-02T01:25:21+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:tata_binding_protein?rev=1725240321&do=diff TATA binding protein: a protein that binds to the TATA box that helps to initiate transcription in eukaryotes. text/html 2024-09-02T01:27:48+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:tata_box?rev=1725240468&do=diff TATA box: a short DNA sequence (usually just 6 bp long) that is part of most eukaryotic promoters located around 35-40 bp upstream of the transcription start site. It is the binding site for TATA binding protein (TBP). text/html 2024-09-02T00:39:28+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:terminal_repeats?rev=1725237568&do=diff Terminal repeats: DNA sequences found at the ends of some transposons and viruses. They are required for transposon or viral function. text/html 2024-08-27T06:21:30+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:test_cross?rev=1724739690&do=diff Test cross: a genetic cross devised by Gregor Mendel that allows a researcher to easily determine the genotype of an individual that appears wildtype but has an unknown genotype. This assumes you have a tester strain readily available. See Chapter 03. text/html 2024-08-27T06:24:01+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:tester?rev=1724739841&do=diff Tester: a strain that is homozygous mutant at $n$ different loci that is used in a test cross. See Chapter 03. text/html 2024-09-02T00:36:17+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:tetracycline?rev=1725237377&do=diff Tetracycline: a common type of antibiotic used in genetics research. text/html 2024-08-27T04:25:09+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:tetrad_analysis?rev=1724732709&do=diff Tetrad analysis: an experimental method to analysis meiosis in yeasts and other fungi. See Appendix A. text/html 2024-08-28T22:18:09+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:tetrad?rev=1724883489&do=diff Tetrad: In the context of yeast genetics, a tetrad refers to the four ascospores from a single ascus, which represents the four products of a single meiotic event. In the context of meiosis in general, a tetrad refers to the four chromatids from a set of replicated homologous chromosomes lined up at metaphase I. text/html 2024-09-02T03:37:10+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:totipotent?rev=1725248230&do=diff Totipotent: used to describe stem cells that can potentially differentiate into all cell types of an organism. text/html 2024-09-01T23:53:52+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:transactivator?rev=1725234832&do=diff Transactivator (activator): a DNA binding protein that binds to promoter sequences to activate the transcription of nearby genes. In the context of gene expression, “activator” is usually a synonym for transactivator. Compare with positive regulator. text/html 2024-09-02T02:02:18+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:transcription_factor?rev=1725242538&do=diff Transcription factor: a generic term that describes any DNA binding protein that affects transcription (can havea positive or negative effect on transcription). text/html 2024-09-02T02:31:23+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:transformant?rev=1725244283&do=diff Transformant: a bacterial or yeast cell that has been transformed with a foreign piece of DNA. text/html 2024-08-30T03:00:03+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:transformation?rev=1724986803&do=diff Transformation: in microbiology (including for yeasts), transformation is the alteration of phenotype due to uptake of external DNA into a cell. Not to be confused with “transformation” in the context of cell biology, where the definition is the alteration of a normal cell to a cancerous cell. text/html 2024-09-02T03:23:46+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:transgene?rev=1725247426&do=diff Transgene: a gene usually from one organism that is introduced into a different organism for research purposes. Although technically plasmids and other episomes can carry transgenes into E. coli, yeast, or other microbes, the term “transgene” tends to be used more for multicellular organisms. text/html 2024-09-02T00:28:01+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:transposon?rev=1725236881&do=diff Transposon: also called a “transposable element”, “jumping gene”, or “mobile genetic element”, a transposon is a gene that has the ability to move around a genome. Thus, unlike most genes, transposons do not have a fixed locus. text/html 2024-08-27T05:47:09+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:true_breeding?rev=1724737629&do=diff True breeding: a true breeding strain is one that has been inbred for multiple generations. We assume that the vast majority of loci are homozygous in a true breeding strain. text/html 2024-09-02T01:41:17+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:two_hybrid_system?rev=1725241277&do=diff Two hybrid system: an experimental procedure, usually performed in yeast, that leverages our knowledge of how transcription works in the $GAL4$-UAS system. It is a general test that can be used to determine if two proteins physically interact with each other. text/html 2024-09-01T23:39:27+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:uninducible?rev=1725233967&do=diff Uninducible: a mutant state wherein normally inducible genes are no longer inducible (and in fact may no longer be expressed at all). text/html 2024-09-02T01:34:11+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:upstream_activator_sequence?rev=1725240851&do=diff Upstream activator sequence (UAS): In a general sense, a UAS is a cis-acting regulatory element, usually located significantly upstream of the promoter and TATA box, to which transactivators bind to activate transcription of nearby genes. Although the term “UAS” can in principle be used to describe any cis-acting upstream sequence that activates transcription, in practice the term enhancer is used more often to describe these $GAL1$ text/html 2024-09-02T00:34:05+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:upstream_downstream?rev=1725237245&do=diff Upstream/downstream: These descriptors have different meanings depending on context: * In genetics, these are terms used to describe directions on DNA, usually relative to the transcription start site of a gene. DNA sequences that are located in the same direction as the direction of text/html 2024-09-02T01:57:10+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:upstream_repressor_sequence?rev=1725242230&do=diff Upstream repressor sequence: In a general sense, a URS is a cis-acting regulatory element, usually located significantly upstream of the promoter and TATA box, to which repressors bind to silence transcription of nearby genes. Although the term “URS” can in principle be used to describe any cis-acting upstream sequence that activates transcription, in practice the term silencer is used more often to describe these $GAL1$ text/html 2024-09-01T21:10:24+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:vector?rev=1725225024&do=diff Vector: in molecular genetics, a vector is a genetic element (usually an episome of sort such as a plasmid but can be something like a virus) that is used to clone and/or transfer genes into and out of cells. text/html 2024-08-27T04:33:31+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:wild?rev=1724733211&do=diff Wild: refers to organisms that grow in wild populations. Not to be confused with wildtype. text/html 2024-08-27T05:13:37+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:wildtype?rev=1724735617&do=diff Wildtype: a reference strain of an organism that scientists operationally define as “normal” to which mutants are compared. Not to be confused with wild organisms. text/html 2024-09-01T00:24:11+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:x-gal?rev=1725150251&do=diff X-gal: an abbreviation for 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-β-D-galactopyranoside, a colorless chemical that turns blue when it is hydrolyzed by β-galactosidase. text/html 2024-12-04T15:28:30+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:yeast?rev=1733326110&do=diff Yeast: in this book, refers to Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a single-celled eukaryotic microbe used as a model genetic organism. See Chapter 02 text/html 2024-08-27T05:43:22+00:00 Anonymous (anonymous@undisclosed.example.com) https://genetics.academic.csusb.edu/glossary:zygote?rev=1724737402&do=diff Zygote: a cell formed by the fertilization of an oocyte by a sperm.