TNBGGA: The No Bullshit Guide to Genetic Analysis

Generally speaking, the answer to “what is a geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-)” has already largely been answered by scientists. Starting from Gregor Mendel's famous pea plant experiments in the 1860s to define the patterns of how observable traits (i.e., phenotypesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigPhenotype: an observable feature or property of an organism.) are inherited from parents to offspring, and culminating in the discovery of the structure of DNAplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDNA: deoxyribonucleic acid. The genetic material for nearly all life on Earth. by James Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin, and Maurice Wilkins in the 1950s, there was a scientific golden age in the second half of the 20th century that not only led to a clear understanding of the physical nature of a geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-), it further allowed scientists to fully catalogue all the genesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) (i.e., the genomeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGenome: a dataset that contains all DNA information of an organism. Most of the time, this also includes annotation and curation of that information, e.g., the names, locations, and functions of genes within the genome. As an adjective (“genomic”), this usually is used in the context of) of many organisms, including humans. While 20th century geneticists typically studied only a few genesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) at a time, new 21st century technologies allow scientists to study thousands of genesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) simultaneously in a single experiment - sometimes from a single cell! Genesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) are talked about even in casual conversation among non-scientists. As a student of biology, you probably already have at least a general idea of what a geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) is - it's instructive for students to think about your prior knowledge on genesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) before reading further.

The fact that scientists already know the answer to “what is a geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-)” begs the next question: “why do we care?” The “we” in this question is referring to you, the reader, who presumably is a student of biology. From that perspective, there are several answers to this question. First, it is useful for students of biology not just to know what something is; it is much more important to know how we know. In some fields of biology, you may learn about experimental techniques, such as how to use a microscope or how to dissect a specimen. In comparison, genetics involves thought experiments that give a great deal of insight into how biologists (especially geneticists) conceptually think about problems. Second, genetics can be used as a tool for studying biology. Even though the laboratory technologies have changed, the ideas that classical geneticists of the 20th century used to study and define the geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) can still be applied to answering new questions about how things work in biology. Many modern advances in medicine are built upon knowledge gained from studying the genetics of diseases.

The answer to the question “what is a geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-)?” will take some effort to answer because there are actually several different definitions that are appropriate in different contexts. The definitions we use in this book are first given here:

1. Genesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) are sources of information that provide some observable biological function.
2. Genesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) are units of inheritance that follow Mendel's Laws.
3. Genesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) are small segments of a chromosomeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigChromosome: a structure that organizes dsDNA in a cell through interactions with various DNA binding proteins. with defined and usually fixed positions.
4. Genesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) are defined sequencesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigSequence: the precise order of monomers in a polymer. In DNA, it refers to the order of G, A, T, and C nucleotides. In RNA, it refers to the order of G, A, U, and C nucleotides. In proteins, it refers to the order of amino acids. of DNAplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDNA: deoxyribonucleic acid. The genetic material for nearly all life on Earth. that code for RNA or proteinplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigProtein: a molecule that is formed by the translation of messenger RNAs (mRNAs). Functions that proteins provide are what usually give organisms their phenotypes..

We first think about genesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) in the context of their function.

To help illustrate the idea of a geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) as a unit of function, we are going to consider experiments on baker’s yeastplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigYeast: in this book, refers to Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a single-celled eukaryotic microbe used as a model genetic organism. See Chapter 02, more formally known as Saccharomyces cerevisiae (sack-ah-ro-MY-sees seh-reh-VIH-see-aye), which is a single-celled microbe used to make bread and beer (Fig. 1). Geneticists love yeastplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigYeast: in this book, refers to Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a single-celled eukaryotic microbe used as a model genetic organism. See Chapter 02, not only because there are neat genetic tricks you can do with it in the lab for research purposes, but also because it's useful in teaching genetics. It also smells great.

In yeastplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigYeast: in this book, refers to Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a single-celled eukaryotic microbe used as a model genetic organism. See Chapter 02, geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) names use three letters usually followed by a number ($MATα$ and $MATa$ are exceptions) and are written with italics. Recessiveplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigRecessive: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Recessive alleles do not exhibit their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele. mutantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference. allelesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence. are written in lowercase (e.g., $his3$) and dominantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDominant: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Dominant alleles will express their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele. allelesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence. (which are usually but not always the wildtypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigWildtype: a reference strain of an organism that scientists operationally define as “normal” to which mutants are compared. Not to be confused with wild organisms. alleleplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence.) are written in all caps ($HIS3$). When talking about a geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) in a generic sense without regard to a specific alleleplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence., either uppercase or lowercase can be used, although conventionally lowercase tends to be used more commonly. Some mutantsplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference. in different genesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) might appear superficially similar (e.g., $his2$ and $his3$ are both histidineplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHistidine: Abbreviated as His or H; one of the 20 amino acids that are used to form proteins. auxotrophsplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAuxotroph: a mutant that cannot synthesize one more essential nutrient from minimal media needed for survival or proliferation.), so phenotypesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigPhenotype: an observable feature or property of an organism. (defined further below) typically are written without the geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) number; the first letter is capitalized, and “+” and “-” are used for wildtypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigWildtype: a reference strain of an organism that scientists operationally define as “normal” to which mutants are compared. Not to be confused with wild organisms. and defective (His⁺ refers to a prototrophplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigPrototroph: an organism that can synthesize all nutrients it needs to survive and proliferate (such as amino acids or nucleotides) from inorganic molecules., His^- refers to a histidineplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHistidine: Abbreviated as His or H; one of the 20 amino acids that are used to form proteins. auxotrophplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAuxotroph: a mutant that cannot synthesize one more essential nutrient from minimal media needed for survival or proliferation.; both terms are defined further below). Proteinplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigProtein: a molecule that is formed by the translation of messenger RNAs (mRNAs). Functions that proteins provide are what usually give organisms their phenotypes. made from the $his3$ geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) is written as His3 (first letter capitalized, no italics). Sometimes proteinsplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigProtein: a molecule that is formed by the translation of messenger RNAs (mRNAs). Functions that proteins provide are what usually give organisms their phenotypes. are written as His3p to put emphasis on the proteinplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigProtein: a molecule that is formed by the translation of messenger RNAs (mRNAs). Functions that proteins provide are what usually give organisms their phenotypes. aspect. In weird cases (see $CUP1^r$ below) you can use superscript to indicate special situations such as a dominantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDominant: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Dominant alleles will express their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele. alleleplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence. or drug resistance, or to emphasize wildtypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigWildtype: a reference strain of an organism that scientists operationally define as “normal” to which mutants are compared. Not to be confused with wild organisms. (e.g., $CUP1^+$).

In the laboratory, we can grow yeastplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigYeast: in this book, refers to Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a single-celled eukaryotic microbe used as a model genetic organism. See Chapter 02 either on a Petri dishplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigPetri dish: a round dish, usually 5-10 cm in diameter, that can contain growth media to grow cells in vitro. (Fig. 1) or in some kind of liquid media in a container such as an Erlenmeyer flask or test tube. Yeastplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigYeast: in this book, refers to Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a single-celled eukaryotic microbe used as a model genetic organism. See Chapter 02 can reproduce sexually, but instead of saying they have two sexes (such as male and female) we say there are two mating types. Yeastplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigYeast: in this book, refers to Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a single-celled eukaryotic microbe used as a model genetic organism. See Chapter 02 cells can exist as haploidsplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHaploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has only one copy of genetic information. Haploid cells typically arise from meiosis (or mitosis of a haploid mother cell). of either mating type α ($MATα$) or mating type a ($MATa$). Haploidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHaploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has only one copy of genetic information. Haploid cells typically arise from meiosis (or mitosis of a haploid mother cell). cells of different mating types when mixed together will fuse to form a diploidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDiploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has two copies of similar genetic information, usually obtaining one copy from a male parent and the other copy from a female parent. cell. Both haploidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHaploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has only one copy of genetic information. Haploid cells typically arise from meiosis (or mitosis of a haploid mother cell). and diploidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDiploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has two copies of similar genetic information, usually obtaining one copy from a male parent and the other copy from a female parent. cells can undergo mitosisplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMitosis: a type of cell division that generates two genetically identical daughter cells. to make more clonesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigClone: Depending on the context, this word can have a few different meanings:

* In the context of genes, cloning means that the physical identity of a gene has been found, and the gene has been sequenced. * In the context of DNA, a cloned DNA fragment is one that has been inserted into some kind of of themselves. Diploidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDiploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has two copies of similar genetic information, usually obtaining one copy from a male parent and the other copy from a female parent. cells can also undergo meiosisplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMeiosis: a process involving two sequential cell divisions that usually produces four gametes (reproductive cells such as sperm or eggs). and form four ascosporesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigSpore: in fungi (including yeast), ascospores (spores) are the equivalent of the four daughter cells of meiosis. that can germinate and become four haploidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHaploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has only one copy of genetic information. Haploid cells typically arise from meiosis (or mitosis of a haploid mother cell). cells. Two of these cells will be $MATα$ and the other two will be $MATa$ (Fig. 2).

In yeastplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigYeast: in this book, refers to Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a single-celled eukaryotic microbe used as a model genetic organism. See Chapter 02, haploidsplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHaploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has only one copy of genetic information. Haploid cells typically arise from meiosis (or mitosis of a haploid mother cell). and diploidsplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDiploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has two copies of similar genetic information, usually obtaining one copy from a male parent and the other copy from a female parent. are isomorphicplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigIsomorphic: a term to describe the phenomenon that phenotypes for a mutant are essentially the same in a haploid or a diploid. – meaning that if there is a change in a geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) (i.e., a mutationplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutation: a change in the DNA of a gene that results in a change of phenotype compared to a reference wildtype allele. See also: mutant. ) that affects some function of the yeastplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigYeast: in this book, refers to Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a single-celled eukaryotic microbe used as a model genetic organism. See Chapter 02 cells, then essentially the same change will be observed in both haploidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHaploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has only one copy of genetic information. Haploid cells typically arise from meiosis (or mitosis of a haploid mother cell). and diploidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDiploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has two copies of similar genetic information, usually obtaining one copy from a male parent and the other copy from a female parent. cells. This allows us to look at the effect of having two different allelesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence. (i.e., versions) of the same geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) in the same diploidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDiploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has two copies of similar genetic information, usually obtaining one copy from a male parent and the other copy from a female parent. cell. For instance, a haploidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHaploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has only one copy of genetic information. Haploid cells typically arise from meiosis (or mitosis of a haploid mother cell). yeastplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigYeast: in this book, refers to Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a single-celled eukaryotic microbe used as a model genetic organism. See Chapter 02 cell might carry a mutantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference. alleleplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence. of the $his3$ geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-), whereas a diploidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDiploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has two copies of similar genetic information, usually obtaining one copy from a male parent and the other copy from a female parent. might carry two identical $his3$/$his3$ mutantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference. allelesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence. or two different allelesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence. such as $his3$/$HIS3$.

All yeastplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigYeast: in this book, refers to Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a single-celled eukaryotic microbe used as a model genetic organism. See Chapter 02 needs to grow in the lab (other than water and warmth) are salts, minerals, and glucose; growth media that contains only these things is called minimal mediaplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMinimal media: growth media that only contains (other than some kind of carbon source as food) inorganic nutrients, usually some nitrogen and phosphorous containing salts.. Using the compounds contained in minimal mediaplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMinimal media: growth media that only contains (other than some kind of carbon source as food) inorganic nutrients, usually some nitrogen and phosphorous containing salts., normal yeastplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigYeast: in this book, refers to Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a single-celled eukaryotic microbe used as a model genetic organism. See Chapter 02 cells can synthesize all the molecules that are needed to construct a cell, such as amino acidsplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAmino acid: molecules that are polymerized to form proteins. (including histidineplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHistidine: Abbreviated as His or H; one of the 20 amino acids that are used to form proteins.) and nucleotidesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigNucleotide: molecules that are polymerized to form nucleic acids (DNA or RNA). Includes dNTPs and NTPs.. Organisms that are able to do this are called prototrophsplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigPrototroph: an organism that can synthesize all nutrients it needs to survive and proliferate (such as amino acids or nucleotides) from inorganic molecules.. In a laboratory context, we define normal yeastplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigYeast: in this book, refers to Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a single-celled eukaryotic microbe used as a model genetic organism. See Chapter 02 cells that can grow on minimal mediaplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMinimal media: growth media that only contains (other than some kind of carbon source as food) inorganic nutrients, usually some nitrogen and phosphorous containing salts. as wildtypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigWildtype: a reference strain of an organism that scientists operationally define as “normal” to which mutants are compared. Not to be confused with wild organisms.. Note that “wildtypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigWildtype: a reference strain of an organism that scientists operationally define as “normal” to which mutants are compared. Not to be confused with wild organisms.” and “wildplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigWild: refers to organisms that grow in wild populations. Not to be confused with wildtype.” do not mean the same thing!

In cells, the synthesis of complex molecules requires many enzymatic steps. When combined, these enzymatic reactions constitute a biochemical pathwayplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigPathway: a series of reactions or events that occur in sequence with some common goal or purpose.. Consider the pathwayplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigPathway: a series of reactions or events that occur in sequence with some common goal or purpose. for the synthesis of the amino acidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAmino acid: molecules that are polymerized to form proteins. histidineplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHistidine: Abbreviated as His or H; one of the 20 amino acids that are used to form proteins. (Fig. 3). Histidineplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHistidine: Abbreviated as His or H; one of the 20 amino acids that are used to form proteins. is an amino acidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAmino acid: molecules that are polymerized to form proteins. used to make proteinsplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigProtein: a molecule that is formed by the translation of messenger RNAs (mRNAs). Functions that proteins provide are what usually give organisms their phenotypes.. It is an example of a molecule that yeastplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigYeast: in this book, refers to Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a single-celled eukaryotic microbe used as a model genetic organism. See Chapter 02 needs to grow and reproduce.

Each intermediate compound in the pathwayplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigPathway: a series of reactions or events that occur in sequence with some common goal or purpose. is converted to the next compound through a chemical reaction catalyzed by an enzymeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigEnzyme: a macromolecule, usually a protein (but sometimes an RNA), that functions as a catalyst of some kind of biochemical reaction. (A is converted to B, B is converted to C, etc.). If there is a change in a geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) (i.e., a mutationplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutation: a change in the DNA of a gene that results in a change of phenotype compared to a reference wildtype allele. See also: mutant.) that somehow affects the function of enzymeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigEnzyme: a macromolecule, usually a protein (but sometimes an RNA), that functions as a catalyst of some kind of biochemical reaction. 3, then intermediate C cannot be converted to intermediate D and ultimately the cell cannot make histidineplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHistidine: Abbreviated as His or H; one of the 20 amino acids that are used to form proteins.. Such a mutantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference. will only grow if histidineplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHistidine: Abbreviated as His or H; one of the 20 amino acids that are used to form proteins. is provided in the growth medium. This type of mutantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference. is known as an auxotrophplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAuxotroph: a mutant that cannot synthesize one more essential nutrient from minimal media needed for survival or proliferation. or auxotrophicplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAuxotroph: a mutant that cannot synthesize one more essential nutrient from minimal media needed for survival or proliferation. mutantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference.. This type of mutationplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutation: a change in the DNA of a gene that results in a change of phenotype compared to a reference wildtype allele. See also: mutant. is known as an auxotrophicplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAuxotroph: a mutant that cannot synthesize one more essential nutrient from minimal media needed for survival or proliferation. mutationplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutation: a change in the DNA of a gene that results in a change of phenotype compared to a reference wildtype allele. See also: mutant.. A strainplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigStrain or line: refers to a pool or colony of individuals or cultured cells of a desired genotype or phenotype that is mostly homogeneous and can be bred and/or produced in perpetuity for research or commercial purposes. “Strain” tends to be used more for microorganisms and refers to a particular genetic variant of an organism that can be propagated in perpetuity. It's easy to maintain most yeastplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigYeast: in this book, refers to Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a single-celled eukaryotic microbe used as a model genetic organism. See Chapter 02 strains – all you need to do is provide them with food (sugars) and they will go through mitosisplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMitosis: a type of cell division that generates two genetically identical daughter cells. to make more copies of themselves.

We next define the term phenotypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigPhenotype: an observable feature or property of an organism.. Phenotypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigPhenotype: an observable feature or property of an organism. simply refers to the observable traits of an organism. Usually, we use the term phenotypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigPhenotype: an observable feature or property of an organism. to refer to a specific trait that we happen to be studying. In our current example, wildtypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigWildtype: a reference strain of an organism that scientists operationally define as “normal” to which mutants are compared. Not to be confused with wild organisms. yeastplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigYeast: in this book, refers to Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a single-celled eukaryotic microbe used as a model genetic organism. See Chapter 02 have the phenotypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigPhenotype: an observable feature or property of an organism. His⁺ and a histidineplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHistidine: Abbreviated as His or H; one of the 20 amino acids that are used to form proteins. auxotrophplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAuxotroph: a mutant that cannot synthesize one more essential nutrient from minimal media needed for survival or proliferation. has the phenotypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigPhenotype: an observable feature or property of an organism. His^-. Let's also give the mutantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference. in which enzymeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigEnzyme: a macromolecule, usually a protein (but sometimes an RNA), that functions as a catalyst of some kind of biochemical reaction. 3 is affected the name $his3$ (Table 1).

Since wildtypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigWildtype: a reference strain of an organism that scientists operationally define as “normal” to which mutants are compared. Not to be confused with wild organisms. yeastplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigYeast: in this book, refers to Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a single-celled eukaryotic microbe used as a model genetic organism. See Chapter 02 are prototrophsplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigPrototroph: an organism that can synthesize all nutrients it needs to survive and proliferate (such as amino acids or nucleotides) from inorganic molecules., we assume that wildtypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigWildtype: a reference strain of an organism that scientists operationally define as “normal” to which mutants are compared. Not to be confused with wild organisms. yeastplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigYeast: in this book, refers to Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a single-celled eukaryotic microbe used as a model genetic organism. See Chapter 02 cells have a “normal” or “standard” version of whatever geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) is mutated in the $his3$ mutantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference.. We assign the symbol $HIS3$ to represent the wildtypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigWildtype: a reference strain of an organism that scientists operationally define as “normal” to which mutants are compared. Not to be confused with wild organisms. alleleplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence. of this geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-). If we have yeastplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigYeast: in this book, refers to Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a single-celled eukaryotic microbe used as a model genetic organism. See Chapter 02 cells of the appropriate mating types, we can mate (or cross) haploidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHaploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has only one copy of genetic information. Haploid cells typically arise from meiosis (or mitosis of a haploid mother cell). wildtypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigWildtype: a reference strain of an organism that scientists operationally define as “normal” to which mutants are compared. Not to be confused with wild organisms. yeastplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigYeast: in this book, refers to Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a single-celled eukaryotic microbe used as a model genetic organism. See Chapter 02 to haploidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHaploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has only one copy of genetic information. Haploid cells typically arise from meiosis (or mitosis of a haploid mother cell). $his3$ mutantsplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference. (Table 2) to create diploidsplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDiploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has two copies of similar genetic information, usually obtaining one copy from a male parent and the other copy from a female parent..

The resultant diploidsplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDiploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has two copies of similar genetic information, usually obtaining one copy from a male parent and the other copy from a female parent. from this cross obtain one alleleplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence. of the geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) in question from the mutantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference. parent ($his3$) and one alleleplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence. from the wildtypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigWildtype: a reference strain of an organism that scientists operationally define as “normal” to which mutants are compared. Not to be confused with wild organisms. parent ($HIS3$). Therefore, we describe the genotypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGenotype: the combination of alleles within an organism or strain. When used as a verb, it means to determine the genotype experimentally. (the collection or combination of allelesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence.) of the diploidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDiploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has two copies of similar genetic information, usually obtaining one copy from a male parent and the other copy from a female parent. as $his3$/$HIS3$. Since the two allelesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence. are not identical to each other, we say that the diploidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDiploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has two copies of similar genetic information, usually obtaining one copy from a male parent and the other copy from a female parent. in this case is heterozygousplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHeterozygous: a state for a diploid organism wherein the two alleles for a gene are different from each other. for this $his3$ geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) (you can also say it is a heterozygoteplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHeterozygous: a state for a diploid organism wherein the two alleles for a gene are different from each other.). Finally, we find that the phenotypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigPhenotype: an observable feature or property of an organism. of the diploidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDiploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has two copies of similar genetic information, usually obtaining one copy from a male parent and the other copy from a female parent. is His⁺ (i.e., the diploidsplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDiploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has two copies of similar genetic information, usually obtaining one copy from a male parent and the other copy from a female parent. can grow on minimal mediaplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMinimal media: growth media that only contains (other than some kind of carbon source as food) inorganic nutrients, usually some nitrogen and phosphorous containing salts.). Based on the His⁺ phenotypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigPhenotype: an observable feature or property of an organism. of the $his3$/$HIS3$ heterozygoteplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHeterozygous: a state for a diploid organism wherein the two alleles for a gene are different from each other., we define $his3$ as being recessiveplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigRecessive: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Recessive alleles do not exhibit their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele. to wildplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigWild: refers to organisms that grow in wild populations. Not to be confused with wildtype. type ($HIS3$). Another way you can say this is that $HIS3$ is dominantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDominant: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Dominant alleles will express their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele. to $his3$.

By comparison, if we cross $his3$ to a $his3$ strainplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigStrain or line: refers to a pool or colony of individuals or cultured cells of a desired genotype or phenotype that is mostly homogeneous and can be bred and/or produced in perpetuity for research or commercial purposes. “Strain” tends to be used more for microorganisms and of the opposite mating type (Table 2), the resultant diploidsplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDiploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has two copies of similar genetic information, usually obtaining one copy from a male parent and the other copy from a female parent. have the genotypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGenotype: the combination of alleles within an organism or strain. When used as a verb, it means to determine the genotype experimentally. $his3$/$his3$. This diploidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDiploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has two copies of similar genetic information, usually obtaining one copy from a male parent and the other copy from a female parent. has two identical allelesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence. of the $his3$ geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-), so we say that it is homozygousplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHomozygous: a state for a diploid organism wherein the two alleles for a gene are identical to each other. for $his3$. We could also describe a $HIS3$/$HIS3$ diploidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDiploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has two copies of similar genetic information, usually obtaining one copy from a male parent and the other copy from a female parent. as homozygousplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHomozygous: a state for a diploid organism wherein the two alleles for a gene are identical to each other.. The $his3$/$his3$ diploidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDiploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has two copies of similar genetic information, usually obtaining one copy from a male parent and the other copy from a female parent. is His^-, illustrating the idea that yeastplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigYeast: in this book, refers to Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a single-celled eukaryotic microbe used as a model genetic organism. See Chapter 02 are isomorphicplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigIsomorphic: a term to describe the phenomenon that phenotypes for a mutant are essentially the same in a haploid or a diploid..

The critical concept here is that without a mutantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference., you cannot define a geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) by function. How would you know that yeastplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigYeast: in this book, refers to Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a single-celled eukaryotic microbe used as a model genetic organism. See Chapter 02 has a geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) that functions to synthesize histidineplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHistidine: Abbreviated as His or H; one of the 20 amino acids that are used to form proteins. unless you broke that geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) such that the yeastplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigYeast: in this book, refers to Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a single-celled eukaryotic microbe used as a model genetic organism. See Chapter 02 could no longer synthesize histidineplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHistidine: Abbreviated as His or H; one of the 20 amino acids that are used to form proteins.? We can use an analogy to further think about this. If you had no prior knowledge of how a car works and were observing a car, you could say that the overall function of a car is to move forward. But how could you know that there is a specific mechanical part that helps the car move forward unless you removed such a part from the car and the car stopped moving? You have no obvious way of knowing what a “transmission” does, until you remove it. Then you know that a “transmission” is a key component of making a car move. In other words, the function of a “transmission” is to make a car move. Mutantsplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference. are the bread and butter of geneticists. Without mutantsplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference., there is no field of genetics.

Let’s consider a different kind of mutationplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutation: a change in the DNA of a gene that results in a change of phenotype compared to a reference wildtype allele. See also: mutant. that occurs in a geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) known as $CUP1$. The mutantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference. is named $CUP1^r$ and is able to grow on media containing copper ions; we describe this phenotypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigPhenotype: an observable feature or property of an organism. as Cup^r (the superscript “r” stands for resistant). Wildtypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigWildtype: a reference strain of an organism that scientists operationally define as “normal” to which mutants are compared. Not to be confused with wild organisms. yeastplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigYeast: in this book, refers to Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a single-celled eukaryotic microbe used as a model genetic organism. See Chapter 02 cannot grow on media containing copper; we describe that phenotypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigPhenotype: an observable feature or property of an organism. as Cup^s (“s” stands for sensitive).

In this case, the diploidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDiploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has two copies of similar genetic information, usually obtaining one copy from a male parent and the other copy from a female parent. that results from mating the $CUP1^r$ mutantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference. to wildtypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigWildtype: a reference strain of an organism that scientists operationally define as “normal” to which mutants are compared. Not to be confused with wild organisms. has the genotypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGenotype: the combination of alleles within an organism or strain. When used as a verb, it means to determine the genotype experimentally. $CUP1^r$/$CUP1$ and the phenotypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigPhenotype: an observable feature or property of an organism. Cup^r. We say that $CUP1^r$ is dominantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDominant: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Dominant alleles will express their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele. to wildplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigWild: refers to organisms that grow in wild populations. Not to be confused with wildtype. type ($CUP1$). Another way you can say this is that $CUP1$ is recessiveplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigRecessive: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Recessive alleles do not exhibit their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele. to $CUP1^r$. It turns out that the $CUP1^r$ alleleplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence. is a geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) duplication and has more copies of the geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) for a copper binding proteinplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigProtein: a molecule that is formed by the translation of messenger RNAs (mRNAs). Functions that proteins provide are what usually give organisms their phenotypes. and therefore increases the activity of the geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) by producing more of the copper binding proteinplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigProtein: a molecule that is formed by the translation of messenger RNAs (mRNAs). Functions that proteins provide are what usually give organisms their phenotypes..

From the above examples, we can see that the terms dominantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDominant: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Dominant alleles will express their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele. and recessiveplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigRecessive: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Recessive alleles do not exhibit their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele. are simply shorthand expressions for the results of particular experiments. If someone says a particular alleleplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence. is dominantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDominant: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Dominant alleles will express their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele. it means that at some point they constructed a heterozygousplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHeterozygous: a state for a diploid organism wherein the two alleles for a gene are different from each other. diploidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDiploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has two copies of similar genetic information, usually obtaining one copy from a male parent and the other copy from a female parent. and found that the trait for that alleleplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence. was expressedplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigExpression: a term used to describe the idea that the function of a gene is apparent and can be observed. Genes may not always be expressed all the time in all places. in that diploidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDiploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has two copies of similar genetic information, usually obtaining one copy from a male parent and the other copy from a female parent.. Dominanceplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDominant: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Dominant alleles will express their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele. and recessiveplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigRecessive: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Recessive alleles do not exhibit their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele.-ness are also relative properties in a pairwise sense; for instance, I might have three different allelesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence. of $CUP1$: $CUP1^r$, $CUP1$ (the wildplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigWild: refers to organisms that grow in wild populations. Not to be confused with wildtype. type alleleplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence.; can also be written as $CUP1^+$), and $cup1$. $CUP1^r$ is dominantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDominant: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Dominant alleles will express their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele. to $CUP1$ as discussed before, and $CUP1$ is dominantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDominant: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Dominant alleles will express their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele. to $cup1$. In the first case, $CUP1$ is “recessiveplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigRecessive: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Recessive alleles do not exhibit their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele.” but only insofar as its relationship to $CUP1^r$, and in the second case $CUP1$ (the wildtypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigWildtype: a reference strain of an organism that scientists operationally define as “normal” to which mutants are compared. Not to be confused with wild organisms. alleleplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence.) is “dominantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDominant: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Dominant alleles will express their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele.” but only in relation to $cup1$.

Sometimes an alleleplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence. will confer more than one phenotypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigPhenotype: an observable feature or property of an organism. and may be recessiveplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigRecessive: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Recessive alleles do not exhibit their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele. for one and dominantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDominant: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Dominant alleles will express their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele. for another. In such cases, the phenotypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigPhenotype: an observable feature or property of an organism. must be specified when one is making statements about whether the alleleplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence. is dominantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDominant: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Dominant alleles will express their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele. or recessiveplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigRecessive: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Recessive alleles do not exhibit their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele.. Consider for example the alleleplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence. for sickle cell hemoglobin in humans designated $Hb^s$ ($Hb^a$ is a normal alleleplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence.). Heterozygousplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHeterozygous: a state for a diploid organism wherein the two alleles for a gene are different from each other. individuals ($Hb^s$/$Hb^a$) are more resistant to malaria; thus, $Hb^s$ is dominantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDominant: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Dominant alleles will express their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele. to $Hb^a$ for the trait of malaria resistance. On the other hand, $Hb^s$/$Hb^a$ heterozygotesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHeterozygous: a state for a diploid organism wherein the two alleles for a gene are different from each other. do not have the debilitating sickle cell disease, but $Hb^s$/$Hb^s$ homozygousplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHomozygous: a state for a diploid organism wherein the two alleles for a gene are identical to each other. individuals do. Therefore, $Hb^s$ is recessiveplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigRecessive: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Recessive alleles do not exhibit their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele. to $Hb^a$ for the trait of sickle cell disease. Once we find out whether an alleleplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence. is dominantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDominant: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Dominant alleles will express their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele. or recessiveplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigRecessive: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Recessive alleles do not exhibit their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele., we can already infer important information about the nature of the alleleplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence.. The following conclusions will usually (but not always) be true: recessiveplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigRecessive: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Recessive alleles do not exhibit their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele. allelesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence. usually cause the loss of something that is made in wildplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigWild: refers to organisms that grow in wild populations. Not to be confused with wildtype. type, while dominantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDominant: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Dominant alleles will express their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele. allelesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence. usually cause increased activity or new activity.

Using the phenotypicplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigPhenotype: an observable feature or property of an organism. difference between wildplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigWild: refers to organisms that grow in wild populations. Not to be confused with wildtype. type and a recessiveplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigRecessive: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Recessive alleles do not exhibit their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele. alleleplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence., we can use the complementation testplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigComplementation test: a genetic experiment that answers the question: how many different genes are represented within a collection of mutants? to determine whether two different recessiveplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigRecessive: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Recessive alleles do not exhibit their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele. allelesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence. are in the same geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-). We will explain by example. Say you isolate a new recessiveplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigRecessive: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Recessive alleles do not exhibit their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele. histidineplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHistidine: Abbreviated as His or H; one of the 20 amino acids that are used to form proteins. auxotrophicplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAuxotroph: a mutant that cannot synthesize one more essential nutrient from minimal media needed for survival or proliferation. mutationplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutation: a change in the DNA of a gene that results in a change of phenotype compared to a reference wildtype allele. See also: mutant. that we will temporarily call $hisX$. In principle, this mutationplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutation: a change in the DNA of a gene that results in a change of phenotype compared to a reference wildtype allele. See also: mutant. could be in the $his3$ geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) (in other words, $hisX$ could simply be a mutantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference. alleleplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence. of $his3$); or it could be in any of the other genesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) in the histidineplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHistidine: Abbreviated as His or H; one of the 20 amino acids that are used to form proteins. biosynthetic pathwayplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigPathway: a series of reactions or events that occur in sequence with some common goal or purpose. (Fig. 3) or even some other new as-of-yet undiscovered geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-). In order to distinguish between these possibilities, we need a test to determine whether $hisX$ is the same as $his3$. To carry out a complementation testplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigComplementation test: a genetic experiment that answers the question: how many different genes are represented within a collection of mutants?, one simply constructs a diploidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDiploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has two copies of similar genetic information, usually obtaining one copy from a male parent and the other copy from a female parent. carrying both the $his3$ and $hisX$ allelesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence.. An easy way to do this would be to mate a $hisX$ haploidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHaploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has only one copy of genetic information. Haploid cells typically arise from meiosis (or mitosis of a haploid mother cell). to a $his3$ haploidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHaploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has only one copy of genetic information. Haploid cells typically arise from meiosis (or mitosis of a haploid mother cell).. If the resulting diploidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDiploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has two copies of similar genetic information, usually obtaining one copy from a male parent and the other copy from a female parent. is His⁺ then we say the two mutationsplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutation: a change in the DNA of a gene that results in a change of phenotype compared to a reference wildtype allele. See also: mutant. complementplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigComplement: used to describe the relationship between two recessive mutants. If a diploid created by mating the two mutants has a wildtype phenotype, we say the two mutants complement each other. each other. If, on the other hand, the resulting diploidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDiploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has two copies of similar genetic information, usually obtaining one copy from a male parent and the other copy from a female parent. is His^- then we say the two mutationsplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutation: a change in the DNA of a gene that results in a change of phenotype compared to a reference wildtype allele. See also: mutant. do not complementplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigComplement: used to describe the relationship between two recessive mutants. If a diploid created by mating the two mutants has a wildtype phenotype, we say the two mutants complement each other. (Table 4); we would then also say that $hisX$ is allelic to $his3$ (and we would probably rename $hisX$ as $his3\text{-}1$ or similar).

Having performed this cross: if the two mutantsplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference. don't complementplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigComplement: used to describe the relationship between two recessive mutants. If a diploid created by mating the two mutants has a wildtype phenotype, we say the two mutants complement each other., we conclude that they are mutantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference. in the same geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-). ¹⁾ Another way we say this is that “$hisX$ is allelic to $his3$”. Conversely, if they do complementplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigComplement: used to describe the relationship between two recessive mutants. If a diploid created by mating the two mutants has a wildtype phenotype, we say the two mutants complement each other., we conclude that they are mutantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference. in different genesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-). For instance, $hisX$ might be a mutationplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutation: a change in the DNA of a gene that results in a change of phenotype compared to a reference wildtype allele. See also: mutant. in the $his4$ geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-).

To understand the reasoning behind this conclusion, look at the combination of allelesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence. (i.e., the genotypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGenotype: the combination of alleles within an organism or strain. When used as a verb, it means to determine the genotype experimentally.) of the diploidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDiploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has two copies of similar genetic information, usually obtaining one copy from a male parent and the other copy from a female parent. in the two possible outcomes of this experiment. In row 2 of Table 4, the $his3$ haploidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHaploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has only one copy of genetic information. Haploid cells typically arise from meiosis (or mitosis of a haploid mother cell). parent is presumed to be mutantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference. only in the $his3$ geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) and therefore implicitly carries the wildtypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigWildtype: a reference strain of an organism that scientists operationally define as “normal” to which mutants are compared. Not to be confused with wild organisms. $HISX$ alleleplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence., and similarly the $hisX$ haploidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHaploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has only one copy of genetic information. Haploid cells typically arise from meiosis (or mitosis of a haploid mother cell). parent is presumed to be mutantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference. only in this one geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) and thus implicitly carries the wildtypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigWildtype: a reference strain of an organism that scientists operationally define as “normal” to which mutants are compared. Not to be confused with wild organisms. $HIS3$ alleleplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence.. Therefore, the diploidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDiploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has two copies of similar genetic information, usually obtaining one copy from a male parent and the other copy from a female parent. produced from the cross will be heterozygousplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHeterozygous: a state for a diploid organism wherein the two alleles for a gene are different from each other. for both the $his3$ and $hisX$ genesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) and therefore provide normal function for both genesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-). It is important to know that this test only works for recessiveplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigRecessive: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Recessive alleles do not exhibit their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele. mutationsplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutation: a change in the DNA of a gene that results in a change of phenotype compared to a reference wildtype allele. See also: mutant..

The beauty of the complementation testplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigComplementation test: a genetic experiment that answers the question: how many different genes are represented within a collection of mutants? is that the trait can serve as a read-out of geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) function even without knowledge of what the geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) is doing. We can simply define a geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) based on its function, and we can distinguish between different genesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) (assuming we have recessiveplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigRecessive: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Recessive alleles do not exhibit their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele. mutantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference. allelesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence. of those genesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-)) using the complementation testplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigComplementation test: a genetic experiment that answers the question: how many different genes are represented within a collection of mutants?. In fact, you can even use the complementation testplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigComplementation test: a genetic experiment that answers the question: how many different genes are represented within a collection of mutants? for mutantsplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference. that have different phenotypesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigPhenotype: an observable feature or property of an organism.! The only requirement for the complementation testplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigComplementation test: a genetic experiment that answers the question: how many different genes are represented within a collection of mutants? is that the two mutantsplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference. must be recessiveplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigRecessive: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Recessive alleles do not exhibit their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele..

We now have one definition of a geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-): a geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) is a property of an organism, of which there can be many different versions (allelesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence.) of this property, that confer some kind of observable or measurable phenotypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigPhenotype: an observable feature or property of an organism. to that organism. Genesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) are considered to be different if recessiveplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigRecessive: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Recessive alleles do not exhibit their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele. mutantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference. allelesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence. of genesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) complementplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigComplement: used to describe the relationship between two recessive mutants. If a diploid created by mating the two mutants has a wildtype phenotype, we say the two mutants complement each other. each other (even if mutantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference. allelesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAllele: a version of a gene. Alleles of a gene are different if they have differences in their DNA sequence. of the genesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) have identical phenotypesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigPhenotype: an observable feature or property of an organism.).

Self-reflective exercise: Based on information in this chapter, how has your thinking on “definition of a geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-)” changed? In other words, what is something new you learned about the concept of a “geneplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-)”? It might be new information, or new ways of thinking of genesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) more rigorously.

Conceptual question: Take another look at Fig. 3. Let's say we have mutantsplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference. in all four genesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) that code for the four enzymesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigEnzyme: a macromolecule, usually a protein (but sometimes an RNA), that functions as a catalyst of some kind of biochemical reaction. in the histidineplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHistidine: Abbreviated as His or H; one of the 20 amino acids that are used to form proteins. biosynthetic pathwayplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigPathway: a series of reactions or events that occur in sequence with some common goal or purpose.. Will these four mutantsplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference. all have the same phenotypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigPhenotype: an observable feature or property of an organism.? What are some different ways you can define these mutantplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference. phenotypesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigPhenotype: an observable feature or property of an organism.?

Conceptual question: With knowledge of how $CUP1^r$ works to provide copper resistance, what do you think the phenotypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigPhenotype: an observable feature or property of an organism. of recessiveplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigRecessive: used to describe an allele, usually in comparison to wildtype. Recessive alleles do not exhibit their phenotype when combined with a wildtype allele. $cup1$ loss-of-function mutantsplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference. would be?

Exercise: Wildplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigWild: refers to organisms that grow in wild populations. Not to be confused with wildtype. type yeastplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigYeast: in this book, refers to Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a single-celled eukaryotic microbe used as a model genetic organism. See Chapter 02 can grow when the amino acidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAmino acid: molecules that are polymerized to form proteins. leucine is not present in the growth media. You are interested in understanding how wildplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigWild: refers to organisms that grow in wild populations. Not to be confused with wildtype. type yeastplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigYeast: in this book, refers to Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a single-celled eukaryotic microbe used as a model genetic organism. See Chapter 02 synthesizes (makes) leucine. We say that the phenotypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigPhenotype: an observable feature or property of an organism. is Leu⁺. You obtain 6 different leucine auxotrophplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigAuxotroph: a mutant that cannot synthesize one more essential nutrient from minimal media needed for survival or proliferation. mutantsplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference. (phenotypeplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigPhenotype: an observable feature or property of an organism. Leu^-) temporarily named $leu1-leu6$²⁾. You want to know how many different genesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) are represented by these 6 mutantsplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference.. To do this, you take the mutantsplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference. (which are haploidplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigHaploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has only one copy of genetic information. Haploid cells typically arise from meiosis (or mitosis of a haploid mother cell).) and cross them to wildplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigWild: refers to organisms that grow in wild populations. Not to be confused with wildtype. type and to each other to make diploidsplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDiploid: a term that describes a cell or organism that has two copies of similar genetic information, usually obtaining one copy from a male parent and the other copy from a female parent. (assume you have the appropriate mating types for everything). You obtain the following results (Table 5:

Based on these results, how many different genesplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGene: read Chapters 02, 03, 04, 05, and 06 for a definition of gene :-) can you definitively determine that are represented by these six mutantsplugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMutant: an individual that has a different phenotype than wildtype and likely contains one more mutations that cause this difference.?